January 1978
Field Museum of Natural History
■'■ ; ...<-.
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
January 1978 Vol. 49, No. 1
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production: Oscar Anderson Calendar: Nika Semkoff Levi-Setti Staff photographer: Ron Testa
CONTENTS
3 The Gamelan
by Sue Carter-De Vale
10a Field Briefs
10c Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 48 ( 1977)
13 Restoration of the Gamelan
by Louis Pomerantz
19 January and February at Field Museum
Calendar of Coming Events
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
President and Director: E. Lei and Webber
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
Blaine J. Yarrington. chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
O. C. Davis
William R. Dickinson. Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Marshall Field
Nicholas Galitzine
Paul W. Goodrich
Hugo J. Melvoin
William H. Mitchell
Charles F. Murphy. Jr.
James J". O'Connor
James H. Ransom
Mrs. Joseph E. Rich
John S. Runnells
William I.. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild. Jr.
Edward R. Telling
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
LIFE TRUSTEES
William McCormick Blair Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg Samuel Insull. Jr. William V. Kahler Remick McDowell J. Roscoe Miller James L. Palmer John T. Pirie. Jr. Donald Richards JohnG. Searle John M. Simpson J. Howard Wood
Field Museum of \atural History Bulletin is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago. II. 60605. Subscriptions: S6 a year: S3 a year for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. II. 60605. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago. IL
COVER
Detail from gongstand of Field Museum's gamelan, a 24-piece Java- nese musical ensemble. Shows center of gongstand (full view shown on p. 9 ), representing elements in Javanese cosmology. The central motif consists of the lotus, showing foliage (green), flowers (two gold medal- lions), and a golden root with blue offshoots. Flanking the lotus are two blue makara, or sea monsters (only heads visible here).
Drawing above shows an entire makara, as it is represented in the gongstand. Drawing below shows kala-head, as it is concealed in the gongstand's lotus. In Javanese mythology, the lotus is the source of life in the upper world. The makara are the guides to the upper world: the kala-head is the spiritual sun. The kala-mokara combination sym- bolizes the soul's gate to the upper world. The gamelan's largest hang- ing gong, the gong ageng, is regarded as the wellspring of music; appropriately, in the 1893 gamelan, the gong ageng hangs below the lotus, source of life. For further discussion of Javanese cosmology and how Field Museum's gamelan relates to it, see "The Gamelan," by Sue Carter-De Vale, p. 3.
Under grants from the National Endowment for the Arts and the Walter E. Heller Foundation, Field Museum's gamelan has been re- stored and is being used for instruction and public performances at Field Museum by advanced students and interested adults. The gam- elan instruments are now on permanent display, with audio supple- ments, in Hall K, ground floor.
Photo by Ron Testa. Drawings by Donn Allen Carter.
Center portion o/bonang barung (gong chimes), consisting of a set of 14 pot gongs. Length 198 cm.
The Gamelan
By Sue Carter-De Vale
Color photography by Ron Testa
Field Museum's 24-piece gamelan, acquired in 1893, represents one of the most important classical music traditions in Southeast Asia. Gamelan is the Indonesian term for various orchestral ensembles on the islands of Java, Madura, Bali, and in mainly Javanese settlements in other parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and even in Surinam (former Dutch Guiana, in northern South America). In western cultures, musicians own
Drawings by Donn Allen Carter
their own instruments and combine them in ensembles such as symphony orchestras and bands; the gamelan,
Sue Carter-De Vale, a professional harpist and musicologist, is gamelan program and research director. Additional informa- tion on the gamelan may be found in her doctoral dissertation, A Sundanese Gamelan: A Gestalt Approach to Organology, Northwestern University, 1977.
Above: 1893 photo of Java Village theater interior, showing Field Museum gamelan on stage. Drawing at left shows probable posi- tion of instruments and stage pieces.
1. JENGGLONG
2. KEMPUL
3. GONGAGENG
4. KENONG
5. KETUK
6. BENCH
7. BEDUG and STAND
8. GAMBANGKAYU
9. SARONDEMUNG
10. SARONBARUNG
11. SARON PEKING
12. BONANG PANERUS
13. REBAB and STAND
14. KENDANG and STAND
15. BONANG BARUNG
16. GAMBANGGANGSA
17. SCREEN
18. DRAPED BENCH
19. STAGE WHERE DANCERS PERFORMED
20. RACK for PUPPETS
21. ENTRANCE for MUSICIANS and DANCERS
however, is a permanent ensemble and the musicians come together to play on it.
Gamelans are basically percussion ensembles, but sometimes include a two-string fiddle, zither, flute and human voices. The bronze instruments include gongs, suspended horizontally or vertically, and metallophones (bronze "xylophones"). The sounding parts of the percus- sion instruments— except for the drums and the one wooden-key xylophone— are usually bronze, but some- times are made of iron, wood, or bamboo.
The wooden stands and resonators may be simple unpainted frames or ornate polychrome (multicolored) sculptures. Painted gamelan are usually one or two shades of the same color, with carving or detail high- lighted with gold leaf or paint. Most ornamentations are paintings or stylized carvings of plants and animals. Zoomorphism, in which the instruments are in the shapes of animals, is rare; anthropomorphism is exceptional.
When the gamelan ensemble as we know it today originated is a matter of controversy. Legend attributes the invention of the gong— long before man came to Java— to the god Batara Guru, who created a small gong to summon the lesser gods. Soon, there were so many signals necessary that he made two more gongs, both of different pitch. These three provided the basis for a sacred form of gamelan still known as munggang. The rest of the instruments were in existence by the end of the Hindu-Javanese period, some five centuries ago, but not combined in large mixed ensembles. This development probably occurred after the coming of Islam to Java in the sixteenth century. The large gamelan ensembles we know today developed between the eighteenth and twen- tieth centuries.
In Javanese thought, a gamelan is one of the many manifestations of kasekten, supernatural charismatic power. The kasekten of certain gamelan is believed to be so strong that it can influence nature: it may cause rain to fall or arouse turbulent human emotions. This power is in- vested in the music of the gamelan— in its very sound. Because of this "power," musicians and nonmusicians alike are deeply respectful of the gamelan— a respect shown by offerings of incense and flowers and other ac- tions. No one sits higher than the big gongs, the gamelan is played shoeless, and no one steps over an instrument; it is moved gently aside if there is not room to pass.
The gamelan is played by both professional and amateur groups in Java. It is used for concert music at social, cultural, and ritual gatherings, and as an intrinsic element of most theater and dance forms. Gamelan is played to welcome guests and audience and to announce the entrance of royalty. It is also important in music education. Indonesian radio stations broadcast gamelan music daily.
The total range of gamelan instruments often spans six octaves (approximately the same range as a western orchestra less its highest octave). Two Javanese
tonal systems supply modal structures: pelog, with seven intervals of unequal size per octave; and slendro, with five nearly equal intervals. Neither system has a fixed scale in the western sense, because no two gamelan are tuned alike, nor is the concept of absolute pitch known in Java. Field Museum's 1893 gamelan has a pelog tuning.
The basis of each gamelan composition (gending) is a traditional "nuclear" melody of a given length and structure. A gending may be described as the presenta- tion of a single melody in "layers." Specific instruments are assigned to each of five functions: in each composition a nuclear melody is simultaneously played in its purest form, paraphrased, enhanced by a related counter- melody, punctuated, and provided with a rhythmic con- tinuum which also signals tempo and volume.
One of the most musically important aspects of gamelan performance is the fact that gamelan musicians perform together in a communal musical unity, not as in- dividual musicians playing separate instruments. Because their musical roles are equally important and in- terdependent, there is no room for stardom. Though a gamelan musician may specialize in certain instruments, he is accomplished on most or all of the others.
In the last 25 years, the gamelan has become a favorite nonwestern ensemble for westerners to learn,
Pak Suminta Mein, leader of the 1893 gamelan, playing the rebab (fiddle) during the exposition.
and at least 14 American colleges and universities have, at considerable expense, purchased gamelan. Field Mu- seum's 1893 gamelan is the only such ensemble within 150 miles of Chicago. Additional instruments to augment the 1893 gamelan have been purchased and the ensemble has been restored for the teaching and performance of its classical music. This was made possible by a grant from the Walter E. Heller Foundation and the special interest of Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta, and by a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. Bennet Bronson, associate curator of Asian archaeology and ethnology, is director of the gamelan project, Louis Pomerantz is con- servator, and Ernst Heins is external adviser.
The history and symbolism of Field Museum's 1893 gamelan unveiled itself like the plot of a spellbind- ing mystery. Beginning with the World's Columbian Ex- position of 1893 in Chicago, and Dutch plantations in nineteenth-century Java, it wove its threads through Javanese artistic techniques, color symbolism, socio- cultural values, cosmic philosophy, and into the structure of gamelan music itself. In a two-year game of interna- tional musical intrigue, the research took me from coast to coast, to the Netherlands, and around the world to Java.
While in Washington, D.C., in May 1976, I learned quite by accident that the Library of Congress held 33 wax cylinder recordings of Field Museum's gamelan
made during the 1893 exposition. These are the oldest known recordings of any gamelan. The property of Har- vard's Peabody Museum, they were made by Benjamin Ives Gilman, the first person to use the phonograph for the scientific analysis of music. Gilman's cylinders and his accompanying notes opened a window to the past, giving us a musical and descriptive record of an entire performance of our gamelan in the "Java Village" at the Columbian Exposition.
That same evening I was to learn that a Miss Norma Boreel, who played in a gamelan group at the Ge- meentemuseum in The Hague, the Netherlands, was the granddaughter of Pak Suminta Mein, leader and rebab (fiddle) player of the 1893 gamelan in Chicago. Miss Boreel later lent us her grandfather's photo album and commemorative medallions from the exposition.
That summer and fall I searched American libraries and historical archives for information on the exposition, and began trying to decode the symbolism in the game- lan's design. In the Netherlands, in February 1977, I learned that the "Java-Chicago Syndicate," responsible for bringing the 1893 gamelan and an entire Sundanese (West Javanese) village to the Columbian Exposition, represented Dutch plantation owners in West and Central Java. This syndicate, which sold the gamelan and associ- ated dance costumes and masks to the Museum on No- vember 9, 1893, was organized by G. C. F. W. Mundt of
Drums of the 1893 gamelan as found in storage: one bedug (rt.) and two kendangs. The bedug is 63 cm high, the kendangs 43 and 69 cm high.
Gambang kayu, or true xylophone with wooden keys. Length 135 cm.
Parakan Salak, and E. J. Kerkhoven of Sinagar. These neighboring plantations, west of the city of Sukabumi, were among the largest in Java. The Java-Chicago Syndi- cate members came to Chicago with the main objective of selling their produce: tea and coffee. The village, the gamelan, and the Javanese themselves were all part of a promotional effort; customers were attracted into the village where they were to sample the Javanese bever- ages. These same Dutch entrepreneurs had sponsored similar Javanese exhibits at the Amsterdam exposition of 1883 and the Paris exposition of 1889.
The 1893 gamelan represents a type of gamelan, in size and design, that was found at Sundanese courts, as opposed to villages. A particular instrument in the 1893 gamelan, the gambang gangsa (18-key, bronze "xylo- phone"), is a rare and archaic form that belonged only to court orchestras. To own a court-style gamelan, such as the 1893 ensemble, was a status symbol for the Dutch who had acquired great power and wealth in Java. In us- ing the gamelan and dance performances to promote their products at the expositions, the Dutch were utilizing ele- ments of the island culture which had become important in their own lives.
Chicago, in 1893, was perhaps the most exciting city in America. Several years of elaborate preparation culminated in the World's Columbian Exposition, held from May 1 to the end of October. Its organizers envis- ioned it as the biggest and best in the history of exposi- tions, placing special emphasis on educational features, such as the latest developments in science and industry. Cultural exhibits, such as the Java Village, represented peoples from around the world.
Music was everywhere, with Western music pro- duced by gigantic symphony orchestras, spectacular choruses of 5,000 voices, and military marching bands. Music from other parts of the world was heard along the
Midway Plaisance. While Samoans sang and Dahomeans danced, the impresario of the Chinese theater complained that the Scottish piper "in the red skirt with a big bag of wind in his mouth," confused his Chinese orchestra.
The Java Village was a reconstruction of a village from West Java, complete except for the lack of lush trop- ical vegetation. The village fence enclosed homes for the Dutch colonials from Sinagar and Parakan Salak, and for the Javanese people. On the front porches, women dem- onstrated the art of batik, weaving techniques, and em- broidery. In the center of the village stood a mosque where the faithful were called to prayer by a large bedug (drum). Free coffee, tea, and cocoa were dispensed from a teahouse. Strolling through the village, one heard the melodies of the anklung orchestra (tuned bamboo rattles) or, for 25 cents, one could enter the theater for various Sundanese and Central Javanese performances.
The 1,000-seat bamboo theater reportedly had more than 82,000 patrons during the exposition's run. The theater fare included chamber concerts with ensem- bles of suling (flute), kacapi (zither), and tarawangsa (fid- dle). In the evenings, the 1893 gamelan accompanied per- formances of two types of wayang, the masterful nar- rated plays of puppetry and human dance, relating heroic episodes from the Mahabharata or Ramayana epics or the Panji cycle.
The music and people in the Java Village were described as "the most popular" of all on the Midway. According to one report, "They were most interesting, these gentle Javanese, and, in certain ways and habits and view of life, quite unlike any other people in the world, so far as the Fair afforded an illustration. There was ... a certain individuality which showed itself even in their music, which, with its sweet, deep tones, was in pleasant contrast to the shrill clamour of the Plaisance all about."
Information about the age and origin of the 1893 gamelan was gathered from oral and written sources which I found in the U.S., the Netherlands, and finally in Java, in October, 1977. The first important clue to the gamelan's age again came from Gilman, who devoted six of his 1893 cylinders to the sound of the individual instru- ments. These recordings prove that the gamelan's tuning has remained stable since the exposition and, therefore, that the gamelan was old before it was brought to Chicago. Analysis of the paints and pigments used on the 1893 gamelan's stands and resonators indicate that these instruments could have been made as early as 1840. Where and for whom it was made remains a mystery. Its designer, however, was an artist who knew as much about Chinese art and music in Java as about Javanese sym- bolism. He was, at least, familiar with certain Chinese stylistic traits, including the use of ultramarine blue; tiny decorative "mirrors"; and the wooden xylophone {gam- bang kayu), which does not have the typical Javanese boxlike shape, but is waisted in the manner of xylophones used in Chinese ensembles in Java. These and other clues narrow the probable provenience of Field Museum's gam- elan to one of three cities: Sukabumi or Cirebon, in West Java; or Semarang, in Central Java.
As an ensemble of polychrome sculptures, the 1893 gamelan is an exciting work of art. Its dark blue is ac- cented with light blue, scarlet, shades of green, and high- lighted with pure gold leaf. Carvings of flowers, leaves, branches, and roots create a "garden" throughout the gamelan. Animal sculptures include birds, serpents, and tiger-lions with heads at front and rear.
The combination of these design elements is unique to this gamelan, and raised a series of interesting ques- tions: Why is the gamelan a garden of flowers, leaves, and branches? Why do some flowers and foliage seem to be disguised faces? Why are there 16 birds on the four bonang instruments (gong chimes)? Why are the six sarons (7-key bronze metallophones) in the shape of tiger- lions? Why are only four of the six tiger-lions fashioned to hold their own playing hammers in their mouths? Why does each tiger-lion have a head at each end, rather than a head and a tail? Why can some of the intertwined pairs of naga (serpents) on the flanks of the tiger-lions see their tails, while others cannot?
The answers to these questions reveal that the 1893 gamelan is a total symbolic representation of the Javanese cosmos. It is the only known gamelan in which this is true. Of particular interest is that fact that the art- ist applied those designs to the instruments selectively, revealing for us the cosmic structure which is also pres- ent in gamelan music.
Senosastroamidjojo, a contemporary Javanese writ- er, interprets the cosmos in a way that explains the design of the 1893 gamelan. According to his conception of the Javanese cosmic trinity, the Triloka, man develops his life between two regions: an underworld, to which
everything belongs that is related to his body and the material outer world; and a god's, or upper, world, to which he strives with mind and soul. Mind and soul are man's link between underworld and upper world. He who wishes to penetrate into the upper world must first be prepared; the earthly mind could not otherwise bear the blinding light of the supernatural spirit. The soul's gate to the upper world is guarded by demons in the service of the gods who block the way for the spiritually unpre- pared. Sea monsters (makara), with fangs and flaming breath crouch beside the soul's gate. It is they who bring the initiate through the darkness of death. When the in- itiate awakens, he sees the spiritual side of the total cosmos, the basis of all being, the source of life in the shape of a tree. This tree of life stands on the mountain of the gods, the mythological Mt. Meru. The tree sym- bolically encompasses all three worlds with their gods. The underworld is represented by the tree's root and the naga, or serpent; the middleworld by the tree's leaves and the head of a kala— the spiritual sun— that illuminates the heart of the cosmos; and the upperworld by the tree's blossoms and Garuda, the eagle-god, or his fellow birds.
The gongstand represents the lotus, the tree of life, the soul's gate to the upperworld, the guides through it (makara), and the spiritual sun (kala). In the gongstand's center is an image of a lotus in flower, with the shoots of its golden root growing downward, its leaves and flowers upward. These tunjung-lotus blossoms, which the artist emphasized with gilding, were traditionally placed on cer- tain gamelans— as well as on palaces— in a prominent position for one to meditate on. They signified the power of the gamelan and that of the person who commissioned its making. From the tip of the lotus, the two main branches of the tree extend across the top of the gong- stand, with all their branches and subbranches directed downward. The vegetation on all the gamelan's in- struments are extensions of this tree of life.
The kala-makara combination (symbols of the gate) on the gongstand demonstrates the propensity of Java- nese artists for concealing animals in vegetation. As we look closely at the central motif on the gongstand, the hidden kala emerges from lotus flowers and root in his traditional form with an open mouth, bulbous nose, moustache, and ornate headdress or coiffure. Makara sea monsters, with curled-up, flaming mouths, and elaborate tails, are hiding in the foliage on either side of the kala.
The carving on the four sets of gong-chimes in the bonang family depicts sixteen birds sitting on four branches of the tree of life. On each of the four corners of the four instruments rests the sculptured head of a peacock or rooster, representing the gods of the upper world.
The six blue tiger-lion saron (single-octave bronze metallophones) show the designer's flair for symbols. The dark blue indicates the tiger-lions' guardianship of the upper world and their role of fostering grace. The terrible
power of their teeth and claws is emphasized by giving them a silvery effect, achieved by underpainting the gold leaf with light blue. Else- where on the gamelan, the gold leaf is yellowish, achieved by using red as the undercoat. These tiger-lions also represent the middle world of man; the pairs of green naga (ser- pents with headdresses) intertwined along their flanks represent the
underworld.
Tiger-lion metallophone gripping a play- ing hammer in its teeth
The three pairs of small, medium, and large tiger-lion saron instru- ments (shown on page 11) symbol- ize, respectively, childhood, matu- rity, and old age; each pair has a different octave range. The smallest, highest-voiced peking have small, even sets of teeth and fangs; the middle saron barung have large fully developed teeth and fangs. The two largest, lowest-voiced saron demung have lost their lower teeth and fangs; only their upper teeth remain. They are like elders who have lost a degree of physical strength, but are still respected for their wisdom and mental powers.
Of each saron pair, one is male, one female. The sexes differ from each other in height, length, and the size of their teeth, mouths, and
Gongstand, with two gong ageng (left and center) and a kempul. Diameters: 87, 78, and 58 cm respectively.
claws; the male has the larger measurements. These tiger-lions have heads at both ends and thus look simultaneously backward and forward — like humans meditating on their past in order to determine their future. The Javanese believe that only this form of meditation can prepare one for the experience of viewing the supernatural light in the upper world.
The artist rendered the pairs of green nagas (serpents) on the flanks of the tiger-lions in order to express the meditative growth of humans during their three life stages. The
nagas present the belief that such meditation does not begin until adulthood, and that only as an elder does one achieve spiritual wisdom. On the smallest tiger-lions, the inter- wined nagas curl so they cannot see their tails: children do not look back at their past life, only ahead to the future. On the adults and elders, however, the nagas peer directly at their tails: they are practicing medi- tation. Only on the wise elders do we find fully developed wings next to the nagas — wings to transport their spiritually prepared souls to the upper world on Mt. Meru.
(Continued on p. 11)
Gambang gangsa,
a rare type of bronze
"xylophone. "
Length 119 cm
Kenong (left) and ketuk, punc- tuating, orcol- otomic, instru- ments; 36 and 29 cm in diameter. The 1893 gam- elan contains two additional kenong.
10
Seated (I. to r.): Lorin Nevling and Robert F. Inger;
standing: William Burger, Melvin Traylor, and Rupert Wenzel.
Staff Appointments
Lorin I. Nevling, curator of botany, has been appointed Field Museum's assis- tant director, science and education. He succeeds Robert F. Inger, who has resigned the post to devote full time to research. A native of St. Louis, Nevling came to Field Museum in 1973 as chair- man of the Department of Botany. His research at the Museum has concerned the flora of Veracruz (Mexico).
Before coming to Chicago, Nevling was a curator of Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbari- um, Cambridge, Mass., where he had served since 1959. He received his B.S. from St. Mary's College (Winona, Minn.) and his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Washington University.
Robert F. Inger was appointed as- sistant director, science and education,
when the post was created in 1971. It oversees the scientific, exhibition, and education departments, as well as the museum library.
Inger received his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Chicago and joined the Museum staff in 1946 as an assistant in the Division of Amphi- bians and Reptiles. He was made assis- tant curator of fishes in 1949, and in 1954 became curator of amphibians and reptiles. In 1970 he was appointed chair- man of scientific programs. Inger has made numerous collecting trips to Southeast Asia and Indonesia and has published extensively on the fish, am- phibians, and reptiles of these areas.
Melvin A. Traylor, curator of birds, has been named chairman of the Depart- ment of Zoology at Field Museum,
succeeding Rupert L. Wenzel, curator of insects, who has been chairman since 1970. A native Chicagoan, Traylor joined Field Museum on a volunteer basis in 1940 as an associate in the Division of Birds; in 1948 he was named a research associate. In 1956, after several years in private business, Tray- lor joined the Museum staff as assistant curator of birds; in 1959 he became associate curator and in 1973 was named curator. In addition to his cura- torial responsibilities, Traylor has served since 1972 as chairman of the Museum's Space Planning Committee, which has played a major role in the building rehabilitation program.
Following graduation from Harvard in 1937, Traylor became actively in- volved in ornithology with a bird-col- lecting trip to Yucatan; two years later he made another collecting trip to the
10a
FIELD BRIEFS
same general region. Subsequent field work was to include expeditions to the Galapagos (1941), Mexico (1948), Egypt (1959), and Rhodesia and Bechuanaland (1961-2).
Traylor has published 77 technical papers, largely on bird systematics, and is editor of volume 8 of Peters' Check-List of Birds of the World; for the check list he is revising the family Tyrranidae (tyrant flycatchers).
Rupert C. Wenzel, who has resigned the zoology chairmanship to devote more time to research, first came to Field Museum (like Traylor) as a volun- teer in 1934. In 1940, two years after receiving his baccalaureate from Central YMCA College, he was made assistant curator of insects; in 1950 he became curator of insects. Subsequently he received his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Chicago.
Wenzel ranks as a world authority on the classification and biogeography of the Histeridae, a family of beetles important in the control of certain in- sect pests. He is also noted for his work on bat parasites. In addition to his work at the Museum, Wenzel is a lec- turer at the University of Chicago and a research associate at Northwestern University.
William C. Burger, associate cura- tor of botany, has succeeded Lorin Nevling as chairman of the Department of Botany. A native of New York City, Burger joined the Field Museum staff in 1965. His main curatorial activity has been research on the flora of Costa Rica. He holds a B.A. from Columbia College, New York: and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Cornell University and Washington University, respectively. Before coming to Field Museum he served for four years on the faculty of Haile Selassie I University, Alemaya, Ethiopia.
Harvey M. Matthew has been ap- pointed head of controls division, De- partment of Exhibition. His responsi- bilities include the monitoring of de- partment schedules and budgets and the coordination of exhibits. Matthew came to the museum in 1976 under a National Endowment for the Arts grant to coordinate the Native Ameri- can Program, including the construc- tion of the Pawnee Earth Lodge. He later coordinated the Treasures of
Haida woman photographed on Queen Charlotte Island near turn of century. Her basket (cat. no. 53109), still incomplete, is in the Field Museum collection. She is using a twining technique. The material is split spruce root.
Tutankhamun exhibition and is now coordinating the Peru's Golden Trea- sures exhibit, scheduled for pubhc opening on February 16.
Patricia W. Freeman, assistant curator of mammals, has been named head, Division of Mammals. She suc- ceeds Ronald Turner, who resigned. Dr. Freeman joined the Museum in September, 1977. She was formerly a scientific assistant at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.
Robert E. Martin has been appointed facilities and collection coordinator for the Division of Mammals. Martin came to Field Museum in September, 1976. □
Theresa Ann Pan jan
Theresa Ann Panjan, a Field Museum employee since 1964, died recently after a brief illness. At the time of her death she was assistant book shop manager. She will be remembered by thousands of Field Museum visitors, employees, and members for her un- failing courtesy, cheerful spirit, and helpfulness. Mrs. Panjan was a native Chicagoan and is survived by her husband Eugene W., two sons, and a daughter.
Northwest Coast Basketry
December 15 was opening date for a re- markable exhibit of various kinds of basketwork, all done by Indians of the Northwest Coast around the turn of the century. The artifacts are all from Field Museum's extensive collection. On view in Hall 27, the exhibit includes not only baskets, but a variety of other utili- tarian objects made with the same basic materials and techniques: cradles, hats, drinking cups, cooking utensils, and fish traps. The tools for making them are also exhibited.
The baskets themselves range in size from teacup-size containers for hold- ing trinkets to "bins" the size of a laun- dry hamper. Their makers included Indi- ans of the Salish, Haida, Hupa, Tlingit, Nootka, Yurok, Karok, Tsimshian, Bella Coola, and Chinook tribes.
The three basic techniques used in fabricating the pieces were plaiting, twining, and coiling; the most common materials included cedar bark, spruce root, willow, alder branches, grass, and ferns. The exhibit features regional dif- ferences in style as well as construction techniques characteristic of the various groups.
10b
Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 48 (1977)
Prepared with the assistance of Ken Grabowski
Titles
Animals Are Human, Too (Or Are Men Just Little Calculators?), by John Terrell: March 3
Cannibals, Catalogs and Computers, by Lenore Sarasan, Marilyn J. Miller, and members of the Department of Anthropo- logy: Sept. 10
Christmas Afternoon at Field Museum, A: Nov. 27
Cloud Forests, by William Burger: Nov. 11
Egypt Tours for Members: Oct. 16
Elephants and the Art of Taxidermy: Jan. 9
Endangered and Threatened Species of the United States and Puerto Rico: June 10
Exotic Fliers: Portraits of Neotropical Birds: July/Aug. 4
Eyes Have It, The, by Eugene R. Slatick: Jan. 10
Gamelan Project, The: A Conservator's Challenge, by Louis Pomerantz: Nov. 23
Gorillas in Captivity, by William E. Mc- Carthy: Sept. 7
Guests of Summer, by Floyd Swink: July/ Aug. 6
In Search of Meteorites, by Paul Sipiera: Sept. 14
In the Daze of the Good King Tut, by Flo- rence Johnson: Oct. 14
Kimberley Snail Hunt— Round One, by Alan Solem: March 6
Kimberley Snail Hunt— Rounds Two through Four, by Alan Solem: Oct. 6
Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77, by Edward Olsen: Feb. 14
Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77, by Edward Olsen: March 16
Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77, by Edward Olsen: May 14
Life in Ancient Peru, by Robert A. Feldman: June 12
Living Jewels of the Tropics, by David M. Walsten: July/Aug. 7
Looking for 'Unimproved' Land: The Illinois Natural Areas Inventory, by Mike Ma- dany: June 18
Major Operation, A, by Berthold Laufer: Jan. 19
Mammal-Collecting in the Australian Out- back, by Laurel E. Keller: Nov. 6
Monkeys Inside and Out: Nov. 4
Native Americans through the Camera Lens of Charles H. Carpenter, by Allan Koss: Oct. 18
On Coming and Going in Saamiland, by Myrdene Anderson: May 6
Pawnee Earth Lodge, The: Oct. 24
Pere David's Deer, by Dale J. Osborn: Oct. 10
Peru's Golden Treasures, by Michael Mose- ley: Dec. 3
Prehistoric Agriculture in the Upper Mid- west, by Thomas J. Riley and Glen Frei- muth: June 4
Rebirth of the Gamelan, by Sue Carter De
Vale and Louis Pomerantz: Nov. 22 Return of the Risher, by Roger A. Powell:
Feb. 8 Silver Anniversary for Bushman: Sept. 4 Tigers without Their Stripes, by David M.
Walsten: May 12 Treasures of the Des Plaines, by Phillip
Hanson: July/Aug. 10 Tut in Retrospect, Oct. 15
Tutankhamun and the Fall of the Eighteenth Dynasty, by William J. Murnane: April 6
Valcamonica: World's Richest Treasury of Rock Carvings, by Lois Bolton Lundy: Feb. 3
Volunteers Honored: May 22
Warp of Cedar, Weft of Spruce: Baskets of the Pacific Northwest, by Helen Chandra, Maija Sedzielarz, and Ron Weber: Nov. 18
Waterways of Ancient Peru, by Michael Moseley: March 10
Authors
Anderson, Myrdene: On Coming and Going
in Saamiland, May 6 Burger, William: Cloud Forest, Nov. 11 Carter-De Vale, Sue: Rebirth of the Gamelan
(with Louis Pomerantz), Nov. 22 Chandra, Helen: Warp of Cedar, Weft of
Spruce (with Maija Sedzielarz and Ron
Weber), Nov. 18 Feldman, Robert A.: Life in Ancient Peru,
June 12 Freimuth, Glen: Prehistoric Agriculture in
the Upper Midwest (with Thomas J. Riley),
June 4 Hanson, Philip: Treasures of the Des Plaines,
July/Aug. 10
Johnson, Florence: In the Daze of the Good
King Tut, Oct. 14 Keller, Laurel E.: Mammal-Collecting in the
Australian Outback, Nov. 6 Koss, Alan: Native Americans through the
Camera Lens of Charles H. Carpenter, Oct.
18 Laufer, Berthold: A Major Operation, Jan. 19 Lundy, Lois Bolton: Valcamonica: World's
Richest Treasury of Rock Carvings, Feb. 3 McCarthy, William E.: Gorillas in Captivity,
Sept. 7 Madany, Mike: Looking for 'Unimproved'
Land: The Illinois Natural Areas Inven- tory, June 18 Miller, Marilyn J.: Cannibals, Catalogs and
Computers (with Lenore Sarasan), Sept. 10 Moseley, Michael; Peru's Golden Treasures,
Dec. 3 : Waterways of Ancient Peru, March
10 Murnane, William J.: Tutankhamun and the
Fall of the Eighteenth Dynasty, April 6 Olsen, Edward: Letters from Antarctica,
1976-77, Feb. 14 : Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77,
March 16 : Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77,
May 14 Osborn, Dale J.: Pere David's Deer, Oct. 10
Pomerantz, Louis: Rebirth of the Gamelan (with Sue Carter-De Vale), Nov. 22
: The Gamelan Project: A Conser- vator's Challenge, Nov. 23
Powell, Roger A.: Return of the Fisher, Feb. 8
Riley, Thomas J.: Prehistoric Agriculture in the Upper Midwest (with Glen Freimuth), June 4
Sarasan, Lenore: Cannibals, Catalogs and Computers (with Marilyn J. Miller), Sept. 10
Sedzielarz, Maija: Warp of Cedar, Weft of Spruce (with Helen Chandra and Ron Weber), Nov. 18
10c
Sipiera, Paul: In Search of Meteorites, Sept.
14 Slatick, Eugene R.: The Eyes Have It, Jan.
10 Solem, Alan: Kimberley Snail Hunt— Round
One, March 6 : Kimberley Snail Hunt— Rounds
Two through Four, Oct. 6 Swink, Floyd: Guests of Summer, July/
August 6 Terrell, John: Animals Are Human, Too (Or
Are Men Just Little Calculators?), March
3 Walsten, David M.: Living Jewels of the
Tropics, July/Aug. 7
: Tigers without Their Stripes, May 12
Weber, Ron: Warp of Cedar, Weft of Spruce
(with Helen Chandra and Maija Sedziel-
arz), Nov. 18
Subjects
Abiera, Christine: Nov. 23 Adelie penguin: May 1 adiabatic cooling: Nov. 11 African clawed frog: July/Aug. 18 African violet (gesneriad): Nov. 12 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
tion Service: June 21 agriculture: June 4 Ahmose I : April 1 1 aims: Sept. 10 Akeley, Carl: Jan. 9; Sept. 8 Akhenaton: April 6 "Albro," shark repellent: Jan. 6 alder, gray (Alnus incana): May 19 Alice Springs, Australia: Oct. 9 Allan nunatak: May 15 Allen, Linda: Sept. 12 Allen, Nick: Nov. 6 alligator: June 9 Amarna: April 6 Amax Corp.: Oct. 8; Nov. 10 Amenhotpe I: April 11 Amenhotpe II: April 11 Amenhotpe III: April 6 Amenhotpe IV: April 6 American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus):
Jan. 2 American crocodile {Crocodylus acutus): Jan.
5 American opposum (Didelphis marsupialis):
Jan. 14 Amun: April 6 Amun, Temple of: April 6 anaconda {Eunectes murinus): Jan. 12 Anati, Emmanuel: Feb. 3 Ancient Irrigation Program: March 10 Anderson, Myrdene: May 6 Andropogon gerardi: July/Aug. 11 Andropogon scoparius: July/Aug. 11 angelica [Angelica archangelica): May 19 Angelica atropurpurea: July/Aug. 11 "Animals Are Human, Too (Or Are Men Just
Little Calculators?)": March 3 Ankhesenamun: April 7 Ankhesenpaton: April 7 Antarctica: Feb. 14; March 16; May 14 antelope, pronghorn (Antilocapra america-
na): Jan. 14 Anthropology Internship Program: May 3
Anthropology, Department of: Sept. 10
Aransas National Wildlife Refuge: Sept. 23
Armour, Mrs. Stanton T.: Sept. 3
aromatic low calamint: July/Aug. 11
Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus): Jan. 14
Aspero (Peru): June 13
Astragalus tennesseensis: July/Aug. 17
Atahualpa: Dec. 3
Atelopodidae: July/Aug. 7
Atlantic giant squid (Architeuthis sp.): Jan.
12 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): May 19 Aton: April 6, 7
Australian wild dog (dingo): Nov 6 Ay: April 11
Ayer Film-Lecture Series: Sept. 3; Oct. 26 Ayers Rock (Australia): Oct. 9
Bacubirito meteorite: Sept. 15 Baer, Klaus: Feb. 13 Baird, Gordon: April 18; May 20 Baker, George R.: March 18 bald eagle: Jan. 8; Sept. 22 bandicoot: Nov. 8
Baraboo Range (Wisconsin): Weekend Geo- logy Field Trip for Members: April 18; 20 Barcelona (Spain) Zoo: Sept. 8 barking tree frog: July/Aug. 7 baskets (Northwest Coast): Nov. 19 Bass, Robert O.: Sept. 3 bat, Indiana (Myotis sodalis): Jan. 5 bats (fruit and tree): Nov. 7 Bauer, Charles: Sept. 10 Bedford, Duke of: Oct. 10 Beeman, Gary: Jan. 7 Bella Coola Indians: Nov. 20 Benld meteorite: Sept. 15 Berlet, Walter: Feb. 17 big bluestem grass: July/Aug. 11 birch (Betula pubescens): May 19 bird repellent: Jan. 4 bird vision bird-eating spider (Theraphosa leblondi):
Jan. 12 Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identifi- cation: July/Aug. 5 Birds of Nepal with Reference to Kashmir
and Sikhim: Jan. 10 birdwing butterfly {Ornithoptera victoriae): Jan. 12
bittern, American [Botaurus lentiginosus): Jan. 2
black oak {Quercus velutina): June 22
Blackmon, Carolyn: Nov. 24
Blake, Emmet R.: July/Aug. 2, 5
Blanchard, David: May 23
blue hare (Lepus timidus): May 19
blue joint grass: July/Aug. 11
blue, or sulfur-bottomed, whale (Balaenoptera musculus): Jan. 13
bobcat: Sept. 22
Bolt, John R.: July/Aug. 14
Boltin, Lee: April 3, 6, 10, 14, 15
Boreel, Norma: Nov. 22
Boulton, Rudyerd: May 5
Bouteloua cortipendula: July/Aug. 11
Boxer Rebellion: Oct. p. 12
bromeliad: Nov. p. 13
Bronowski, Jacob: May 8
Bronson, Bennet: Feb 19; Oct. 5; Nov. 22
Brookfield Zoo: Sept. 8
Broome, Western Australia: Nov. 6
Bronx Zoo: Sept. 9
Brown, Jerry, Mrs.: Sept. 17
Brown, Roger, Mrs.: March 18
Buick, Roger: Oct. 8; Nov. 9
bulbul: July/Aug. 18
Burd, James: May 23
Bureau of Land Management: June 9
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation: June 20
Burger, William: Nov. 3, 11
Burton, Harry: April 3, 10, 15
"Bushman": Sept. 4; Nov. 25
butterfly: May 12
caiman: June 9
calamint: July/Aug. 11
Calamogrostis canadensis: July/Aug. 11
calciphile: July/Aug. 11
calculator: March 4
Calhoun, Louva: May 23
California condor (Gymnogyps california-
nus): Jan. 5 California falcon: Jan. 7 Calumet Sag Channel: July/Aug. 1 1 "Caemenid Land Snails of Western and Cent- ral Australia": March 7 Campbell, Susan: Sept. 12 Campoli, Anna: Nov. 23 Camunian Center for Prehistoric Studies
(Centro Camuno di Studi Pristorici): Feb. 3 "Cannibals, Catalogs and Computers": Sept.
10 Cantu, Bob: Sept. 18 Capo di Monte, Italy: Feb. 3 Care and Use of Systematic Collections of
Fishes: Sept. 3 "Caroline" (gorilla): Sept. 9 Carpenter, Charles H.: Oct. 18 Carter, Howard: April 2, 15, 19; May 4 Carter-De Vale, Sue: Oct. 5; Nov. 22 Cassidy, William: Feb. 15; March 16 Castrop, Julie: Nov. 25 Catocala (underwing moths): Feb. 16 cattail: July/Aug. 11 cemetery prairie: June 23 centipede [Scolopendra morsitans): Jan. 12 Cerro Zurqui, Costa Rica: Nov. 16 certified wildflower varieties: Jan. 7 Chan Chan: March 12 Chandra, Helen: Nov. 19 char {Salvelinus): May 19 Check List of North American Noctuidae,
Part I: Feb. 16 cheetah tAcinonyx jubatus): Jan., p. 14 cherry: Jan. 4 Cheyenne Indians: Oct. 19 Chicago House (Luxor): Oct. 17 Chicago Park District: Oct. 3 Chicagoland Birds, When and Where to Find
Them: May 5 Chicama Valley (Peru): March 13 Chilkat Indians: Nov. 20 Chimbote: June 13 Chimu empire: March 12; Dec. 3 China: Oct. 10
Christiansen, Carl: March 6; Oct. 6; Nov. 10 chromosome: May 12 cinerary urn, Roman: Feb. 2 clam, tridacna [Tridacna derasa): Jan. 12 Clark, Eugenie: Jan. 6 Clark, Shawna: Nov. 23 "Cloud Forests": Nov. 11
10d
cloudberry: May 19
cockroach: Sept. 20
Collier, Donald: Sept. 12
columbaria: Sept. 2
Columnea gloriosa: Nov. 12
condor, California {Gymnogyps californian-
us): Jan. 5 "Cook's Tour": Nov. 24 Cooney, John: Feb. 13 cornhill agricultural plots: June 5 Costa Rica: Nov. 13
cowberry {Vaccinium vitis-idaea): May 19 crab, giant spider (Macrocheira kaempferi):
Jan. 12 crocodile: June 9 crocodile, American {Crocodylus acutus):
Jan. 5 crocodile, estuarine (saltwater)(Crocody/us
pocosus): Jan. 12 cuckoo flower {Cardamine pratensis palus-
tris): June 19 curlew: July/Aug. 12 Cuzco, Peru: Dec. 3
Dampier Peninsula (Australia): Nov. 6
Danilov, Victor: Oct. 3
David, Pere Jean Pierre Armand: Oct. 10
Davis, Barbara: Sept. 12
Davis, Charles F.: May 5
Davis, O. C: March 18
Davis, Ronald: May 8
de la Torre, Luis: Feb. 19
Deeds, Eric E.: March 13
deer, Pere David's: Oct. 10
Degen, Alan: Feb. 17
Deis, Betty: Sept. 18
dendrobatid frogs: July/Aug. 7
Derby, Australia: Oct. 7
Deschampsia caespitosa: July/Aug. 11
Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane, Mme.:
Feb. 13 Devil's Lake, Wis.: April 18 Dewitt nunatak: May 14 dingo (Australian wild dog): Nov. 6 Dobberstein, Dolores: Sept. 19 dolomite: July/Aug. 10 du Chaillu, Paul: Sept. 5 duck: May 19
Durrack Range, Australia: Nov. 9 Dybas, Henry: July/Aug. 15
eagle, bald: Jan. 8
eastern timber wolf: Sept. 21
echidna: Nov. 7
Edaphasaurus: July/Aug. 14
Edward E. Ayer Film/Lecture Series: Feb. 17
effigy mounds: June 5
Egypt Tours for Members: Oct. 17
Eighteenth Dynasty: April 6
electrum: April 10
elephant: Jan. 9
elephant seal: May 15
elephant, African {Loxodonta africana afri-
cana): Jan. 13 elephant, Asiatic {Elephas maximus): Jan. 14 "Elephants and the Art of Taxidermy": Jan. 9
Elaphurus davidianus: Oct. 12 Emas, Zoe: May 23 "Endangered and Threatened Species of the
United States and Puerto Rico": June 10 endangered species: June 9
Endangered Species Act of 1973: June 9;
Sept. 21, 22 Enga: June 7 Environmental Protection Agency (epa):
June 9 epa (Environmental Protection Agency):
June 9 Epigraphic Survey: Oct. 17 epiphyte: Nov. 13 Ertmann, Earl L.: Feb. 19 Eskimo curlew: July/Aug. 12 Espinosa, Paul: June 14 estuarine (saltwater) crocodile {Crocodylus
porosus): Jan. 12 Evangelical Lutheran Church: May 7 "Exotic Fliers: Portraits of Neotropical
Birds": July/Aug. 5 Exxon Corp.: April 3; June 3 "Eyes Have It, The": Jan. 10
falcon, California: Jan. 7
Feldman, Robert A.: June 12
felucca: Oct. 17
Fennoscandia: May 6
ferret: July/Aug. 18
Field Museum, opening day: June 8
Fieldiana: Jan. 15
Figel, Patty: Sept. 12
Finno-Ugric language family: May 6
fisher (mammal): Feb. 8
Fitzroy Crossing, Australia: Nov. 7
Fleming, Robert L., Jr.: Jan. 16
Fleming, Robert L., Sr.: Jan. 16
Flora of Costa Rica: Sept. 3
Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus): Jan. 5
Floristics of Veracruz: Sept. 3
Fort Center, Fla.: June 8
Fowler, Melvin: June 8
Fox, red (Vulpes vulpes): May 19
Freeman, Patricia: Oct. 5
Freimuth, Glen: June 4
frog, tree: July/Aug. 6
frogs: July/Aug. 7
fur seal: Jan. 4
Galip; see Lasisi, David
Gallatin, Albert: July/August. 13
gamelan: Oct. 5
"Gamelan Project: A Conservator's Chal- lenge, The": Nov. 23
garden beds, prehistoric: June 4
Gayford, Peter: May 23
gecko: Sept. 20
Gemeente Museum (The Hague): Nov. 22
Geronimo: Oct. 18
gesneriads: Nov. 12
giant spider crab {Macrocheira kaempferi): Jan. 12
giant toad: July/Aug. 18
Gilpin, Orville: July/Aug. 14
Girardi, Betty Lou: May 23
golden hoary puccoon {Lithospermum ca- nescens): June 2
Goliath beetle (Goliathus goliathus): Jan. 12, 14
Goliath frog {Rana goliath): Jan. 12
goose: May 19
Gorgosaurus: July/Aug. 14
gorillas: Sept. 4
"Gorillas in Captivity": Sept. 7
Grabowski, Kenneth John: Feb. 19
Granja, Reynaldo: Sept. 12
grass-of-Parnassus {Parnassia glauca): June 19
gray alder {Alnus incana): May 19
gray wolf: Sept. 21
Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge: Sept. 23
"Great Scientific Debate of the 20th Cen- tury": March 3
great white shark {Carcharadon carcharias): Jan. 12
Greene, Peter: Sept. 10
Griffin, Donald R.: March 5
Grigelaitis, Vicki: Nov. 25
Gritis, Paul: May 23
grizzly bear: Jan. 3
Grote, A. R.: Feb. 16
grouse, willow (Lagopus lagopus): May 19
Grove, Samuel H.: Nov. 4
"Guests of Summer": July/Aug. 6
Guide to Field Museum of Natural History: July/Aug. 14
Guinness Book of World Records: Jan. 12
Guov'dageai'dno; see Kautokeino
Gurewitz, Sol: May 23
gynander: May 12
gynandromorph: May 12
Haida Indians: Nov. 20
Hales, Fleur: May 23
Hall, Fran William: Feb. 17
Handbook of North American Birds: May 5
Hanson, Philip: July/Aug. 10
hare, blue [Lepus timidus): May 19
Haremhab: April 7
Harper College; see William Rainey Harper
College Harper, Ken: May 15 Harris Extension: Nov. 26 Harris, James: Feb. 13 Harvest of a Quiet Eye: The Natural World
of John Burroughs: May 5 Hatshepsut: April 11 heather: May 19 Heins, Ernst L.: Oct. 5; Nov. 22 Herman F. Strecker Lepidoptera collection:
May 13 Hershkovitz, Philip: Nov. 4 Heuchera richardsonii: July/Aug. 11 Higinbotham, Harlow N.: March 2 Hiller, Audrey: Nov. 24 hoary puccoon, golden {Lithospermum ca-
nescens): June 2 Hogan, Ralph: May 23 Hollingsworth, W. E.: Sept. 16 Hopi Apartment: Sept. 2 Horicon Marsh (Wis.): March 18 Houston toad: Sept. 21 Houston Zoological Gardens: Sept. 8 Huaca de los Idolos: June 12 Huaca de los Sacrificios: June 15 Huaca del Sol: March 11 Huichol Indians: Feb. 17 Hulst, George D.: Feb. 16 hummingbird {Heliactin cornuta): Jan. 14 Hupa Indians: Nov. 21 Huy: April 11
Huysmans, Ferdinand: May 3 Hylidae: July/Aug. 7
Illinois Department of Conservation: June 18 Illinois Institute of Technology: Sept. 10 Illinois Natural Areas Inventory: July/Aug. 17
10e
Illinois Nature Preserves Commission: June
18 "In Search of Meteorites": Sept. 14 Inca empire: March 12; June 15; Dec. 3 Indian paintbrush (Castilleja coccinea) June
2 Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis): Jan. 5 injurious wildlife, regulations on: July/Aug.
p. 18 Instituto de Investigaciones Sobre Recursos
Bioticos: Sept. 3 International Visitor Program: Oct. 4 Irvin, Frederica: May 23
"James Marvin Weller, 1899-1976": Feb. 18
Japanese white-eye: July/Aug. 18
jellyfish {Cyanea arctica): Jan. 12
Johnson, Florence: Oct. 14
Johnson, Ralph Gordon: July/Aug. 15
Johnson, Theodore: July/Aug. 6
Johnson, W. C: Sept. 6
Joliet, 111.: July/Aug. 13
Jolliet, Louis: July/Aug. 13
Jones, Doug: Feb. 17
Jones, Malcolm: May 23
Joyce Foundation: June 2
Karnak: April 6
Karok Indians: Nov. 21
Kautokeino (Guov'dageai'dno), Norway:
May 6 Kavieng, New Ireland: Oct. 4 Keane, Richard V.: July/Aug. 5 Keller, Laurel E.: Oct. 8; Nov. 6 Kelly, A. R.: June 8 Kent, Lisa: Nov. 23 killer whale: May 15 Kimberley (Australia): Oct. 6 "Kimberley Snail Hunt— Round I": March 6 "Kimberley Snail Hunt— Rounds II through
IV": Oct 6 "King Tut": April 6
Kitchener, Darryl: Oct. 8
Klemens, Eb: Sept. 12
Kolar, John: June 2
"Kolo" (gorilla): Sept. 8
Komodo monitor lizard {Varanus komodoen- sis): Jan. 12
Korbecki, Joyce A.: Feb. 2; Sept. 10
Korobkin, Marjorie: July/Aug. 14
Koss, Alan: Oct 18
Koss, Allan; see Koss, Alan
Krefeld (W. Germany) Zoo: Sept. 8
Krider, E. P.: Sept. 20
Krstolich, Joseph B.: Sept. 6
"Kumba" (gorilla): Sept. 8
Kus, James S.: March 13
Kwakiutl Indians: Nov. 20
La Cumbre Canal: March 13
La Grange Park Garden Club: June 2
Lacey Act: July/Aug. 18
Laestadian sect: May 7
Lake Erie: June 9
Lake Turkana, Kenya: Oct. 5
Lambeosaurus: July/Aug. 14
land snails: March 6; Oct. 6
Lapham, Increase: June 5
Lapps: May 6
largest animals, world's records: Jan. 12
Lasisi, David: Oct. 4
Lathrap, Donald W.: June 12
Laufer, Berthold: Jan. 19
lavaret whitefish {Coregonus lavaretus): May
19 Lawford Range (Australia): Nov. 9 leafy prairie clover: July/Aug. 16 Leakey, Richard E.: Oct. 5 Legion of Night: The Underwing Moths: Feb.
16 Lemont, 111.: July/Aug. 10 Leonard, Anne: May 23 Leopold Range (Australia): Nov. 8 "Letters from Antarctica, 1976-77": Feb. 14 Levi-Setti, Matteo: Oct. 3 Levi-Setti, Nika Semkoff: July/Aug. 14; Oct.
3 Lewis University: July/Aug. 17 Lewis, Phillip: July/Aug. 14; Oct. 4 Lewis, Sally: Oct. 4 Library of Congress: Nov. 22 Liebman, Elizabeth: March 7, Oct. 7 "Life in Ancient Peru": Jun.e 12 lightning detection device: Sept 20 Lima (Peru): June 13 Lincoln Park Zoo: Sept 4, 7 Liston, Timothy: Sept. 12 little bluestem grass: July/Aug. 1 1 "Living Jewels of the Tropics": July/Aug. 7 Living New World Monkeys IPIatyrrhini): Nov. 5 lobster, North Atlantic IHomarus america-
nus): Jan. 12 Lockport, 111.: July/Aug. 11 locust swarms: Jan. 12 London Zoological Society: Oct. 12 long-billed curlew: July/Aug. 12 longest animals, world's records: Jan. 12 "Looking for Unimproved Land: The Illi- nois Natural Areas Inventory": June 18 Lossu, New Ireland: Oct. 4 Louisiana Purchase Exposition: see St.
Louis Fair of 1904 Lukoschus, Fritz: Nov. 6 Lundy, Lois Bolton: Feb. 3 lynx: Sept. 22 Lynx canadensis: Sept. 22 Lynx rufus: Sept. 22 Lyons Township High School Conservation
Club: June 2
McCarthy, William E.: Sept. 7
McCrone, Walter: Nov. 23
McMurdo Sound: Feb. 15
McMurdo Station: March 16; May 15
Madany, Mike: June 18
"Major Operation, A": Jan. 19
Malanggan: Oct. 4
"Mammal-Collecting in the Outback": Nov.
6 mammals, tertiary: March 7 mammoth: Jan. 9 manatee, Florida {Trichechus manatus): Jan.
5 Manual of Neotropical Birds: July/Aug. 2, 4 Marquette, Pere: July/Aug. 13 Marshall, Larry Gene: Sept. 3 Martin, Ed: Sept. 12 Martin, Richard A.: Feb. 19 Martling, Margaret: May 23 "Massa" (gorilla): Sept. 9 Mauer, William J.: Sept. 3 Maya: April 11 Mazon Creek: July/Aug. 15
"Mbongo" (gorilla): Sept. 9
Members' Nights: July/Aug. 15; Oct. 5
Memphis (Egypt): April 10
metallophone: Nov. 22
meteorite: Feb. 14; March 16; May 14; Sept.
14 methiocarb: Jan. 4
Metropolitan Museum of Art: April 3 mice: Jan. 14 Michigan Department of Natural Resources:
Feb. 12 Middle Woodland Period: June 6 midge (Forcipomyia): Jan. 14 Millar, John R.: July/Aug. 15 Miller, Marilyn J.: Sept. 10 millipede (Graphidostreptus gigas): Jan. 12 millipede [Scaphistostrepus seychellarum):
Jan. 12 Milne Edwards, Alphonse: Oct. 10 Minnakht: April 6 Minnesota Public Interest Research Group
(mpirs): July/Aug. 19 Mirex pesticide: Jan. 6 Mitchell Plateau (Australia): March 7; Oct. 6;
Nov. 10 Moche state: March 12 Moche Valley: March 12 "Modoc," longest-lived elephant: Jan. 14 Molina, Antonio: May 3 monadnock: April 18 Monahans, Tex.: Sept. 17 Monteverde Cloud Forest: Nov. 13 moraine: July/Aug. 11 Moran, Rob: June 20 Morell, Ross: June 8 Morris, Keith: Nov. 9 Moseley, Michael: March 10; July/Aug. 3;
Dec. 3 moundbuilders: June 5 Mt. Erebus: March 16 Mt. Olga, Australia, Oct. 9 Mud Lake, 111.: July/Aug. 13 Mueller, LeMoyne: May 23 Muhlenbergia cuspidata: July/Aug. 16 Muller, Kai: Feb. 17 Miiller-Karpe, Michael: Nov. 3 mummies: Feb. 19 Munster, Roy: Nov. 8 Murnane, William J.: April 6 Mursili II: April 14 Museum "Journeys ": Nov. 24 Mutnodjme: April 14 mynah: July/Aug. 18
Nadler, Ronald: Sept. 8
Nafertiti: April 7
Nakhtmin: April 14
Napier Downs Station, Australia: Oct. 7
Napier Range (Australia): Oct. 6
National Endowment for the Arts (NEA): Sept. 3, 10; Nov. 22
National Endowment for the Humanities: April 3
National Environmental Policy Act (nepa): July/Aug. 19
National Land Institute of Rockford: June 18
national parks: Jan. 6
National Science Foundation (nsf): March 7, 12; July/Aug. 3; Sept. 3, 10; Nov. 3
National Science Foundation's Office of Po- lar Operations: Feb. 15
lOf
Natural Land Institute: June 20
Nature Conservancy: June 18
Navigate Rocco D.: Sept. 2
NEA, see National Endowment for the Arts
Nebkheprure: April 7
Nelson Gallery-Atkins Museum of Fine Arts:
May 3 "New Exhibit, 'Monkeys Inside and Out,'
Heralds Publication of Monumental work
by Philip Hershkovitz": Nov. 5 New Ireland: Oct. 4 Newberger, Natalie: Sept. 18 Nials, Fred L.: March 13 Ningbing Range (Australia): Oct. 6 Nininger, H. H.: Sept. 15 Nitecki, Matthew: Feb. 18; April 18; May 20;
Nov. 3 Nootka Indians: Nov. 20 North American Indian Art: May 3 North Atlantic lobster (Homarus america-
nus): Jan. 12 Norway: May 6
Numenius americana: July/Aug. 12 Numenius borealis: July/Aug. 12
oak, black (Quercus velutina): June 22
O'Brien, John: May 22
ocean sunfish (Mola mola): Jan. 12
Ocker, Valerie: Sept. 14
octopus {Octopus apollyon): Jan. 12
Odessa, Tex., Sept. 17
Oglala Sioux Indians: Oct. 22
Oklahoma City Zoo: Sept. 9
Olsen, Edward: Feb. 14; March 16; April 18;
May 14 "On Coming and Going in Saamiland": May
6 "On Your Own at Field Museum ": Nov. 24 opposum, American {Didelphis marsupialis):
Jan. 14 Ord River basin (Australia): Nov. 9 Oriental Institute: May 4 Origins: Oct. 5
Ornamental Horticulture Laboratory: June 8 Ortloff, Charles R.: March 13 Osborn, Dale J.: Oct. 10 Osgood, Wilfred H.: Oct. 6 osprey: Jan. 8
Ottawa National Forest: Feb. 8, 12 owl, spotted: June 9 Ozaki, Molly: Sept. 19
Pa-Aton-em-hab: April 11
Pahl, Marion: Nov. 4
paintbrush, Indian {Castilleja coccinea): June
2 PANDORA: Sept. 12 Paris Academy of Science: Oct. 10 Parker, Alfred E.: Sept. 6 Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: Sept. 23 Pawnee earth lodge: Oct. 18, 24; Nov. 26 Peacock, Elizabeth: Nov. 23 Pedicularis lanceolata: July/Aug. 11 Peking, China: Oct. 10 Pembroke Township: June 22 Penca: Nov. 23 penguin, Adelie: May 15 perching plants: Nov. 13 Pere David's deer: Oct. 10 "Performing Arts in America, The": May 9 Perth, Australia: Oct. 7 Peru: March 10; June 12; Dec. 2, 3
"Peru's Golden Treasures" Dec. 3
Peske, G. Richard: June 6
Petalostemum foliosum: July/Aug. 16
Pfiffner, E. John: Nov. 4
"Phil" (gorilla): Sept. 9
phlox, purple prairie (Phlox pilosa): June 2
Phoenix, Ariz.: Sept. 17
Pilbara Region (Australia): Oct. 6
Pippin, Lonnie: March 13
Pitluga, Linton: Sept. 3
Pizarro, Francisco: Dec. 3
Place for Wonder, The: March 18; July/Aug.
3; Nov. 24 Plainview, Tex.: Sept. 16 poison-arrow frog: July/Aug. 7 pollution control-environmental conference:
Jan. 7 Pomerantz, Louis: Oct. 5; Nov. 22 Porno Indians: Oct. 19 Powell, Roger A.: Feb. 8 Pozorski, Shelia: March 13 Pozorski, Thomas: March 13 prairie alum root: July/Aug. 11 prairie cordgrass: July/Aug. 1 1 prairie dock [Silphium terebinthinaceum):
June 19 prairie phlox, purple (Phlox pilosa): June 2 prairie satin grass: July/Aug. 16 prehispanic cultures of South America:
March 12 "Prehistoric Agriculture in the Upper Mid- west": June 4 Price, Laurie: March 6; Oct. 6; Nov. 10 Prince Regent River basin: March 7 Programa Riego Antiguo (Ancient Irrigation
Program): March 10 pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana):
Jan 14 Ptah: April 10, 13 14 ptarmigan (Lagopus scoticus): May 19 puccoon, golden hoary (Lithospermum
canescens): June 2 purple angelica: July/Aug. 11 purple prairie phlox (Phlox pilosa): June 2 python, reticulated (Python reticulatus): Jan.
12
quartzite: April 18
Queen Fabiola Mountains (Australia): Feb.
14 Quetico canoe trip for members: April 18 Quimby, George Irving: June 6
Rabineau, Phyllis: Sept. 10
Rada, M. E.: May 23
Radin, Paul: June 6
Raptor Information Center: Sept. 23
rat, black (Rattus rattus): Nov. 7
rats: Jan. 14
Rattus rattus (black rat): Nov. 7
Ray A. Kroc Environmental Fund: March 7
Re: April 10
Rea, Dorothy: March 2
"Rebirth of the Gamelan": Nov. 22
red fox (Vulpes vulpes): May 19
red tide: June 13
Redford, Donald B.: Feb. 13
reindeer: May 10
Remarks Upon the Genus Catocala, with a
Catalogue of Species and Accompanying
Notes: Feb. 16 Resident Birds of Chicago: May 5
reticulated python (Python reticulatus): Jan.
12 Rettig, Neil: Feb. 17
ribbon worm (Lineus longissimusl: Jan. 12 Richardson, Eugene S.: July/Aug. 15 Riley, Thomas J.: June 4 Rio Moche: March 12 Robert Wood Johnson Jr. Charitable Trust:
April 3; June 3 Robinson, Eddie: Sept. 5 Roder, Dorothy: April 18 Romeoville, 111.: July/Aug. 12 Roseman, Stanley: May 6 Ross Island: March 16 Ross Sound: March 16 Ross, Ann: Sept. 18 Royal Society Range: March 16 Russian sturgeon (Acipenser huso): Jan. 12 rustlers (cactus): Sept. 21 rustlers (tree): Sept. 20
Saami: May 6
Saamiland: May 6
Sacred Circles — 2,000 Years of North
American Art: May 3 Sag Valley: July/Aug. 1 1 St. Cosme, Jean: July/Aug. 13 St. Louis Fair of 1904: Oct. 18 Salish Indians: Nov. 20 salmon, Atlantic (Salmo salar): May 19 saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus):
Jan. 12 Sanborn, Colin Campbell: Sept. 4 Sarasan, Lenore: Sept. 10 Sargent, Theodore D.: Legion of Night: The
Underwing Moths (book review): Feb. 16 saron: Nov. 22 Sassoonian, Manu: May 6 Satureja arkansana: July/Aug. 11 Savage, Thomas S.: Sept. 4 Save the Prairie Society: June 2 Save the Valley: July/Aug. 17 Savi's white-toothed pygmy shrew (Suncus
etruscus): Jan. 13 Schmidt, Karl P.: July/Aug. 15 Scholl, Carol: Sept. 19; Nov. 24 Schoolcraft, Henry: June 5 Schramm, Frederick R.: July/Aug. 15 Schumacher, Carole: May 23 scorpion, sea (Pterygotus buffaloensis): Jan.
12 Scott, Nora: Feb. 13 sea scorpion (Pterygotus buffaloensis): Jan.
12 seal, elephant: May 15 seal, fur: Jan. 4 seal, Weddell: May 15 seashell Spondylus): June 14 Service Club of Chicago: March 18 Shang dynasty: Oct. 10 Shannon, Rick: Sept. 3; Nov. 19 shark repellent: Jan. 6 Shatzel, Dennis: May 15 Shawabty (Tutankhamun): April, 4, 6 shrew, Savi's white-toothed pygmy (Suncus
etruscus): Jan. 13 side oats grama grass: July/Aug. 11 Sierra Madre: Feb. 17 sii'da: May, 10
silkworm (Bombyx mori): May 13 "Silver Anniversary for Bushman": Sept. 4 Silverman, David P.: Feb. 19
lOg
Sinai reefs: Feb. 17
Sinbad (gorilla): Sept. 9
Singer, Ronald: Nov. 4
Singh Bangdel: Jan. 16
Sioux: Oct. 22
Sipiera, Paul: Sept. 14
Skinner, Donald: March 18
skua: March 19; May 15
Slack-Smith, Shirley: Oct. 6
Slatick, Eugene R., "The Eyes Have It":
Jan. 10 Smenkhkara: April 7 Smith, Ellen Thorne (Mrs. Hermon Dunlap
Smith): May 5 Smith, Harriet M.: Feb. 19; May 3; July/Aug.
14 Smith, Hermon Dunlap, Mrs. (Ellen Thorne
Smith): May 5 snails: Oct. 6 snails, land: March 6 "Snowflake" (gorilla): Sept. 7 snowmobile: May 19
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis: March 3 Solem, Alan: March 6; Oct. 6; Nov. 3 Sonoran Desert: Feb. 17 sorrel (Oxyria digyna): May 19 sorrel (Rumex acetosa): May 19 Soule, Thayer: Feb. 17 South African springbok lAntidorcas mar-
supialis): Jan. 14 South Pole: Feb. 15; March 16 Spartina pectinata: July/Aug. 11 Spicehandler, Judith: Nov. 23 spider, bird-eating ITheraphosa leblondi):
Jan. 12 Spondylus seashell: June 14 spotted owl: June 9 springbok, South African (Antidorcas mar
supialis): Jan. 14 squid, Atlantic giant (Architeuthis sp.): Jan.
12, 13 starling: July/Aug. 18 Starved Rock: Weekend Geology Field Trip
for Members: April 18 Stein, Llois: May 23 Stephens, Lorain: May 23 stick insect (Parnacia serratipes): Jan. 12 stoat: July/Aug. 18 stone turtle: Jan. 19 Strecker, Herman. F.: Feb. 16; May 13 Street, Janice: Nov. 6 Street, William S.: Nov. 6 sturgeon, Russian (Acipenser huso): Jan. 12 sulfur-bottomed, or blue, whale
(Balaenoptera musculus): Jan. 13 Sumerian stag: Nov. 3 Sundanese Gamelan: A Gestalt Approach to
Organology, A: Nov. 22 sunfish, ocean (Mola mola): Jan. 12 Superior National Forest: Feb. 8; April 18 Suppiluliumma: April 14 swallowtaiUPapi/i'o machaon): Jan. 14 swallowtail, tiger (Papilio glaucus): May 12 swamp betony: July/Aug. 11 Swartchild, Jim: May 23 Swink, Floyd: July/Aug. 6 Swink, Marie: July/Aug. 6 Sylvester, William: Feb. 17
taxidermy: Jan. 9 Tel Aviv Zoo: Sept. 9 Telling, Edward R.: Sept. 3
Tenami Desert, Australia: Oct. 9 Tennessee milk vetch: July/Aug. 17 Terrell, John: March 3; Feb. 19; Sept. 13;
Nov. 3 Tertiary mammals: March 7 Thebes: April 6 Thomas, P.: Nov. 10 Thompson, Governor James R.: Oct. 3 threatened species: June 10 Thutmose I: April 11 Thutmosell: April 11 Thutmose III: April 11 Thutmose IV: April 11 Tickets to the World's Columbian Exposition
of 1893: March, cover illustration, 2 tide, red: June 13
tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus): May 12 "Tigers Without Their Stripes": May 12 till: July/Aug. 11 timber wolf: Sept. 21 Tiyi: April 1 1 Tlingit Indians: Nov. 20 Topeng Babakan: Nov. 23 toucan: July/Aug. 2 toucanet: July/Aug. 2 Trans-Antarctic Mountains: May 14 Traylor, Melvin: Jan. 16 "Treasures of the Des Plaines": July/Aug. 10 "Treasures of Tutankhamun": Feb. 19; April
6; June 3 Treasures of Tutankhamun Dinner-Lecture
Series: Feb. 13 tree frog: July/Aug. 6 tree rustlers: Sept. 20 tridacna clam (Tridacna derasa): Jan. 12 Troglodytes gorilla: Sept. 4 trout (Salmo): May 19 Trustees, Board of: March 18 Tsimshian Indians: Nov. 20 Tudor, Guy: July/Aug. 2, 5 tufted hair grass: July/Aug. 11 Turnbull, William: March 7; July/Aug. 14 Turner, Ronald W.: Sept. 3; Nov. 3 Turumiquire, Mt.: July/Aug. 5 Tutankhamun: April 6; May 4; July/Aug. 10;
Oct. 14, 16 Tutankhaton: April 7 Twomey, Arthur: Feb. 17 Typha latifolia: July/Aug. 11
Umstot, Dick: Sept. 14
"Uniguide": Oct. 3; Nov. 25
United States Antarctic Research Program
(USARP): Feb. 15 United States Forest Service: Feb. 12 University of Chicago: April 3 University of Illinois: June 6 Urban, Helen: Nov. 23
"Valcamonica: World's Richest Treasury of
Rock Carvings": Feb. 3 Valdivia culture: June 17 vampire bat: July/Aug. 18 VanStone, James: Nov. 19 vegetation sampling: June 23 Victoria Land: May 14 vision in birds: Jan. 10 volunteers: May 22 "Volunteers honored": May 22 Vondriska, Jean: Sept. 19 Voris, Harold: May 23 Vostok: Feb. 15
Voyageur Wilderness Program: April 18
Waddington, C. H.: March 3
wallaby: Nov. 8
Wallace, Snow: Nov. 6
walnut trees: Sept. 21
Walsten, David: May 12; July/Aug. 7
Walter E. Heller Foundation: Nov. 23
Walters, Leon L.: Sept. 6
Ware, James, Mrs.: March 18
"Warp of Cedar, Weft of Spruce": Nov. 19
Warshawsky, Louis: Sept. 12
Waterman, Stanton: Feb. 17
"Waterways of Ancient Peru": March 10
weasel: July/Aug. 18
weasel family: Feb. 8
Webber, E. Leland: May 22; Oct. 3; Nov. 22
Weber, Ron: Nov. 19
Weddell, Eric: June 7
Weddell seal: May 15
wedge-prism: June 23
Weekend Geology Field Trips for Members:
April 18; May 20 Weiland, Richard: Sept. 10 Weiss, David: May 22 Weller, James M.: Feb. 18 Wells, Fred: Oct. 6
Wenzel, Rupert L.: July/Aug. 14; Nov. 3 Western Australia: Oct. 6 Western Australian Field Program: March 6;
Nov. 6 Western Australian Museum: Nov. 10 whale shark (Rhiniodon typus): Jan. 12 whale, killer: May 15 "What's the Weight, by the Way, of a
Quarter-Trillion Locusts?": Jan. 12 Whitaker, John O.: Nov. 10 White, Jack: June 21 whitefish, lavaret (Coregonus lavaretus):
May 19 whooping crane: Sept. 23
Wilderness Canoe Trip, Third Annual: April 18 wildflower varieties, certified: Jan. 7 Wildlife Management Institute: June 9 Will County, 111.: July/Aug. 12 William Rainey Harper College: Sept. 16 willow fSalix caprea): May 19 willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus): May 19 Willow Springs, 111.: July/Aug. 10 Wilson, Barry: Oct. 6 Wilson, Edward O.: March 3 Wilson, J. L.: Sept. 4 Wilson, Keith: June 19 Winnebago Indians: June 6 Woburn Park Abbey: Oct. 12 wolf: Sept. 21 Wolf Road Prairie: June 2 wolf, eastern timber: Jan. 8 Wolf, George: Sept. 12 Wonder, Frank C: Sept. 6 World's Columbian Exposition of 1893:
March 2; Oct. 5 Wright Upper Glacier: March 16 Wright, H. E., Jr.: July/Aug. 19 Wyman, Jeffries: Sept. 4
Yamato Mountains: May 14
Yamato Mountains meteorites: Feb. 14; May
14 Yanai, Keiso: March 16 Yanos, George: June 6 Yurok Indians: Nov. 21
10h
(Continued from p. 9)
The artist was well informed about the structure of gamelan music and was probably a gamelan musician himself. We know this because his design of the instru- ments depicts a relationship between music and philoso- phy: The tiger-lion saron comprise a family, the nucleus of society; the musical function of these six instruments is to play the nuclear melody of a gending, or gamelan composition, in its purest form. An even more remarkable example of this expressed relationship between music and philosophy may be seen in the design of the gong- stand. On this piece, the artist carved the gate to the upperworld and the tree of life, complete with branches, foliage, flowers, and root. The tree is the source of life from which man is born, and to which he returns after death. The gong is the source of music; and all music arises from and returns to it.
The more I thought about it, the more such instru- ments seemed to reflect their musical function. The artist had presented a philosophic cosmic concept in a musical context, and this led me to wonder if there might be a cosmic structure hidden in the structure of gamelan music itself. I found my answer in the numerical princi- ples inherent to the cosmic tree of life— principles said to underlie the balance of nature that pervades all elements of Javanese culture, including their concept of time, their sense of direction, and their sense of symmetry in art and dance. These numerical principles are present in the design of the 1893 gamelan, and they dictate the funda- mental structure of gamelan music.
The tree of life is symmetrical. When represented two-dimensionally, it has an even number of branches growing from its trunk, so that the right and left sides are symmetrical. Three-dimensional images of the tree always bear at least four branches, representing the four primary directions. As the tree grows, the number of branches increases to 8, then 16, then 32, and so on, doubling with each increment, so that the compass is always equally divided. (See diagrams on page 12.)
This same numerology is seen in the right and left branches of the gongstand and in the pairs of tiger-lions, each with two heads and four serpents (two on each side). It is also seen in the four instruments of the bonang fam- ily, with the carved branches carrying a total of 16 birds.
The colotomic (underlying) structure of gamelan music exhibits an identical numerical principle. In every composition, the nuclear melody is divided into gong phrases, each signaled by a stroke of the big gong. De- pending on the form of the nuclear melody, the number of equal-length beats in a gong phrase will be 8 or 16 or 32 or 64, and so on. The gong phrases are further subdivided by the kenong, ketuk, and kempul, the punctuating colo- tomic instruments. Each gong phrase is divided into fourths by the kenong and kempul, and into eighths by the ketuk, with each instrument sounding its own prede- termined pattern.
For example, in a Javanese piece with 16-beat gong
Sarons, or bronze metallophones in the form of tiger-lions, re- presenting (top to bottom) childhood, maturity, and old age. Each is one of a pair in the 1893 gamelan. See p. 9 for discus- sion. (Lengths: 78, 91, 93 cm.)
phrases, the kenong sounds on beats 4, 8, 12, and 16; the kempul on beats 6, 10, 14; the ketuk on 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15. (The kempul, on beat 2, is implied but not played because the big gong is still ringing.) This same pattern becomes the colotomic cycle for each 16-beat phrase in the piece.
A diagrammed colotomic cycle, drawn in a circle, can be seen to replicate the organization of the tree of life, with the direction and number of its branches equally rep- resenting the points and subpoints of the compass. Thus, the structure of gamelan music through time, parallels the structure of the tree of life in space.
In designing the frames, stands, and resonators of the 1893 gamelan, the unknown artist presented the in- nermost being of his people. He created a representation of the Javanese cosmos— a complex symbolism insepar- able from the structure of the music itself. For more than 84 years this very special gamelan has been silent. Now, with its beauty fully restored, it sings for us again.
11
Bonang barung, set of 14 pot gongs. Length 198 cm. (Detail shown on p. 3.)
N
NW NNW
\
WNW
NNE
/
NE
/
ENE
\
\
Suling, a Central Javanese flute, with six finger holes. Length 32 cm.
G N
/
/
W.
wsw
,/
I
ssw
ESE
\
SSE
V
s
N*
G: gong
N: kenong P: kempul T: ketuk
/ I I \ \P
N
N
The design of Field Museum's gamelan reflects a numerical parallels the structure of a 16-point compass rose (left), which
relationship between Javanese cosmology and the structure of may also be visualized as the branches of the tree of life in
Javanese music. The colotomic cycle of a 16-beat gong phrase space, (right) with four instruments participating through time,
12
Corner of conservation lab, showing several gamelan instruments in various stages of restoration.
RESTORATION OF THE GAMELAN
By Louis Pomerantz
Photos by the author
I first saw the Field Museum gamelan in October 1976, when Bennet Bronson, associate curator of Asian archae- ology and ethnology, led me to the "Pacific research lab," a huge ground-floor storeroom filled with fascinating arti- facts from faraway shores. The purpose of my visit was to decide if I were interested in restoring these ancient Java- nese instruments, a project for which the Museum had al- ready received a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts.
There, resting on storage tables and desk tops, the instruments were a curious assemblage, fashioned in a variety of shapes: drums of hollowed tree trunks covered top and bottom with stretched skins; xylophones of wood and bronze bars that were supported on the backs of double-headed, sculptured tiger-lions; bronze gongs up to 36 inches in diameter; long, couchlike frames for support- ing sets of bronze gong chimes; a finely carved dragon sporting bent-nail fangs and serving as a support for a two-stringed fiddle; numerous wooden beaters tipped with leather or covered with fabric. All of these exotic in- struments were part of a 24-piece orchestra from the island of Java; now more than 130 years old, they had
been brought to Chicago in 1893 for the World's Colum- bian Exposition.
My reaction on first seeing the collection was mixed. The deteriorated condition of the instruments and the variety of materials used in their construction presented a formidable challenge. These marvelous polychromed wood carvings supporting ranks of gongs and bars must have been an arresting sight at the exposi- tion. It would be enormously satisfying to restore them to life.
Caught in the gamelan's "spell," I immediately immersed myself in studying methods and materials re- quired for a detailed restoration. It was obvious that the 130 dismantled bits and pieces of tarnished bronze would need cleaning; but just how extensively this was to be done had to be decided in consultation with Ben Bronson and Sue Carter-De Vale (the gamelan project program and research director, who had written her doctoral dis- sertation on the gamelan), since cleaning involved impor-
Louis Pomerantz, a renowned art conservator, is special con- servator for the gamelan project.
13
Kenong stand, like a patient swathed in bandages, is nearly covered with wet-strength tissue paper which has been treated with hot gelatine adhesive. After the adhesive has dried— rebind- ing the original paint film to the wood surface— the paper is removed. Cleaning and restor- ation of this stand required hundreds of hours of meticulous work.
tant aesthetic considerations and a knowledge of Javanese culture, tradition, and custom.
Polishing materials would have to be safe for appli- cation on whatever object was involved, and required a preliminary chemical analysis. Exactly how to treat the badly flaked paint on the wooden surfaces had to be researched. Adhesives to be employed would depend on the kind of paint and binding media already present, as well as the way in which these elements were layered. If the paint responded safely to heat, a thermoplastic ad- hesive could be used. If the paint was water-resistant, an aqueous adhesive would be considered. If this proved un- safe, then a resin/solvent type of adhesive might be suitable. If use of the latter was indicated, it would be necessary to find a resin which was soluble in a solvent that would not dissolve the original paint. It was also
possible that a combination of any of these choices might work. What was initially required, then, was a chemical analysis of the binding media and pigments.
Once the flaking paint was rebonded, it would then be safe to clean the surface without the danger of addi- tional paint loss. The surfaces to be cleaned were densely layered with murky varnish and grime, all of which had to be removed. Solubility of these substances would have to be determined and a solvent chosen which would not harm the paint underneath.
Whatever materials and techniques were to be employed, it was also essential that our procedures be reversible: the materials should be removable without harming or endangering the original structure. Once the original paint films were securely bonded and the clean- ing completed, structural repairs could then be under-
the three pairs of
saron, or tiger-lion
metallophones, as they
were in storage, prior
to restoration.
14
taken. After this, missing paint would be restored by fill- ing and inpainting (retouching only in the areas of losses). As a safety factor, the latter could be done after varnish- ing. This was the order in which the project actually pro- ceeded.
To make a detailed analysis of the pigments, bind- ing media, varnish, metal, and metal polish, we were for- tunate in securing the services of Chicagoan Walter C. .McCrone, an internationally recognized analytical micro- scopist. Eight wood samples were sent to the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, in Madison, Wis., where they were studied by Robert C. Koeppen, a specialist in plant struc- ture and wood identification.
While McCrone and Koeppen did their analyses, I tested various adhesives and solvents for their safety as well as effectiveness. The test results on the polish proved it to be excellent for the bronze. McCrone 's elec- tron microprobe analysis of gongs and brass bars showed they were similar to one another in composition: approx- imately 70 percent copper and 30 percent tin, except for two small gongs, one containing 3 percent lead and the other containing about 78 percent copper and 20 percent tin, suggesting that they may have been made at a dif- ferent time or place than the others. McCrone also ana- lyzed the gold leaf and the metal backing of the mirror glass.
Identification of the many paint samples was done by polarized light microscopy and electron microprobe. McCrone's analysis of 130 paint samples revealed four white pigments, two yellows, two greens, a brown, a black, a red, and a blue. The newest of them, synthetic ultramarine blue, was introduced in 1824, thus proving conclusively that the instruments were painted sometime after that date.
Many of the instruments are decorated with small squares or circles of mirror glass. To the unaided eye, their sparkle seemed to emanate from slivers of mica, but analysis showed they were composed of layers of lead, glass, and paper. Especially significant to us was the fact that all instruments were coated with multiple paint layers, in some cases as many as seven. Ordinarily, this would suggest they had been repainted at later times— a common happening with western polychromed sculpture. Such a condition of paint layers applied at great intervals of time would require, then, that the upper layers be stripped away to reveal the original, bottom layer.
Sue De Vale, however, explained to me that Indo- nesian puppets are painted only in certain colors, and these in a prescribed sequence. In discussing this same procedure in his book on Javanese puppets, R. L. Mellema noted "This means in practice that one has to choose carefully to match friendly colors with each other, and to avoid related tints . . . each color has its own specific friendly color, e.g. , red has to be matched with green, and orange with blue . . ."* To recognize that these multicol- ored paint films were original and not later additions was thus important, and underscored the need for close col- laboration between the conservator and those with a knowledge of Javanese culture.
McCrone's infrared absorption analysis of the var- nish indicated a Siamese shellac that was soluble in ethyl
*Wayang Puppets, Carving, Coloring, and Symbolism, by R. L. Mellema, published by the Royal Tropical Institute, Amster- dam, 1954.
Conservator Louis
Pomerantz at work on
saron, or metallo-
phone, stand.
15
Gamelan conservation volunteers (clockwise from upper right): Helen Urban, Dodie Baum- garten, Rae Barnett, Judith Spicehandler, Anna Campoli, and Elizabeth Peacock.
alcohol. The wood samples were identified as jackfruit (Artocarpus), pine, teak (Tectonia), a monocotyledon of unknown genus with a soft, pithy stalk, and a leguminous tree (Albizia?).
Scrapings of varnish containing an insoluble grit were sent to McCrone in hopes that their geographic origin could be pinpointed. This information, in turn,
might tell us where the shellac had been applied— whether in Indonesia, the United States, or elsewhere. Disappoint- ingly, the analysis showed "a wide variety of particulate debris including sand, limestone, feldspar, mica, fibers of linen, paper, and cotton, nothing unique about them ..." —simple air pollution ingredients of a universal sort!
During the course of our work— aided and abetted
16
One of many delicate restoration
processes: the cleaning of gold
leaf. (1) Wet-strength tissue is
placed on area to be treated.
(2) Solvent is applied. (3) Excess
solvent is blotted. (4) Blotter is
removed, showing how darkened
shellac varnish has been absorbed
by wet-strength tissue.
by volunteers, who were in fact indispensable— it was often necessary to improvise techniques as we encoun- tered special problems.* One such problem was how to clean the porous surface of gold leaf. This required ex- treme delicacy, because the gold leaf, insoluble in ethyl alcohol, (used to remove the darkened shellac varnish), was underpainted with vermillion, a substance that was soluble in the alcohol. We overcame this difficulty by ap- plying strips of wet-strength tissue paper and blotter paper soaked in alcohol. This absorbed the shellac as the alcohol dissolved it, leaving both the vermillion and the gold leaf unharmed.
In many areas where the edges of carved figures were covered with paint, shrinkage of the underlying wood had created lacunae, or spaces, between paint and wood. When adhesive was applied and the paint pressed flat there would then be insufficient surface space for the paint; a loss of paint would result. To prevent this, we tried stuffing the lacunae with tiny strips of wet-strength paper, then moistening the paper with a hot gelatine adhesive. It worked like a charm! And its success more than compensated for the delicate maneuverings re- quired.
In some instances, we were obliged to substitute modern materials for original materials that had badly deteriorated. For example, decomposed strips of a mono- cot wood that lay beneath the bronze xylophone bars were replaced with balsa wood. Woven cloth strips that acted as buffers between the monocot and the bronze bars were replaced with strips of pure wool. Nails securing the xylophone bars were covered with heat-shrinkable poly- vinyl chloride (pvc) tubing. Missing fragments of wood carving were replaced with custom-carved balsa. Crudely nailed repairs of the past were rejoined with carpenter's glue. Sherwin-Williams Company chemists A. P. Wagener and John W. Huffman tested the bronze pieces and, on their recommendation, we treated the pieces with a .2 per-
*The gamelan project volunteers assisting in the restoration and conservation were Christine Abiera, Rae Barnett, Dodie Baumgarten, Anna Campoli, Shawna Clark, Lisa Kent, Elizabeth Peacock, Judith Spicehandler, and Helen Urban.
17
Sue Carter-De Vale, gamelan program and research director, checking the pitch of a key on a peking (smallest tiger-lion saron, or metallophone).
cent solution of benzotriazole in isopropanol ("Cobra- tec"), which is expected to preserve their shine and pro- tect them from tarnish for years to come.
Tuning of the instruments was a major undertak- ing performed by Ernst L. Heins, a specialist in Javanese music at the University of Amsterdam, and Sue Carter- De Vale. Metallophones are tuned by filing the keys; gongs are tuned by hammering or by adding wax to the small "knobs" (bosses) on top. I suggested a method of using microcrystalline wax. This proved successful, and eliminated the need to hammer the gongs. Hammering, by changing the metal's thickness, alters the sound. Thus, it is a very tricky business that may crack the gong, and has traditionally required the skills of a Javanese specialist. A wax used on the gongs in the past had become brittle and either fallen out completely or partly separated from the bronze surface. The remaining fragments caused undesirable vibrations or sound that decayed too quickly in musical tone.
As we proceeded with the restoration process, pho- tographs were taken to document the original condition of the instruments and details revealing original methods of manufacture, as well as step-by-step restoration treatments. Thus, hundreds of 35mm slides are now part of the documented record of how these rare and beautiful instruments were resurrected.
Various pot gongs, inverted, showing old wax (lower left) and recently added microcrystalline wax. The use of microcrystal- line wax in tuning the gongs was devised by Pomerantz and initiated by Ernst Heins, University of Amsterdam musi- cologist.
18
January & February at Field Museum
(January 15 through February 15)
New Exhibits
Field Museum Gamelan— opens January 15. Field Muse- um's Javanese gamelan, an ensemble of 24 fine bronze and wood musical instruments, has been completely restored for exhibition. It is the oldest and perhaps finest gamelan outside Indonesia. An audio tape supplements this permanent exhibit. Hall K, ground floor.
Basketry of the Northwest Coast Indians. This exhibit features 100 basketry items made mostly around 1900 by Indi- ans of the Northwest Coast (southwestern Alaska to northern California). The three major basketry techniques of plaiting, twining, and coiling are represented, along with the raw materi- als and tools used. Hall 27, 2nd floor.
Peru's Golden Treasures— Members' preview February 15. (Opens to public Feb. 16.) A special exhibit of 225 pre- Columbian gold artifacts, on loan from the Museo Oro del Peru, Lima, comprise the largest collection of its kind ever shown in the United States. The exhibit is augmented by more than 50 antiquities from Field Museum's own collections and from the Peabody Museum at Harvard University. Hall 27, 2nd floor. Through May 21.
New Programs
Papua New Guinea: Twilight of Eden— January 29. The Illinois Audubon Society presents a free film/lecture about the world's largest island at 2:30 p.m. in Simpson Theatre, ground floor west.
Cradle of Haida tribe made of spruce root. On view with other Northwest Coast bas- ketry pieces in Hall 27.
Monkeys Inside and Out. Exhibit of illustrations of mon- keys appearing in the recently published Living New World Monkeys, Vol. 1, by Philip Hershkovitz, emeritus curator of mammals. Hall 9. No closing date.
Exotic Flyers: Portraits of Neotropical Birds. Exhibit of exquisite bird illustrations appearing in the recently published Manual of Neotropical Birds, Vol. 1, by Emmet R. Blake, emeri- tus curator of birds. Hall 9. No closing date.
Continuing
Winter Journey for Children: Hidden Faces. Self -guid- ed tour leads children through museum exhibits to learn about masks and their uses in different cultures. Free Journey pamph- lets available at information booth, main floor. Through January 31.
The Place for Wonder. This gallery provides a place to handle, sort, and compare artifacts and specimens. Weekdays, 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m.; weekends, 10:00 a.m. to noon and 1:00 p.m. to3:00p.m.
The Ancient Art of Weaving. Weaving and spinning dem- onstrations every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, 10:00 a.m. to noon. South Lounge, 2nd floor.
Male and Female: Anthropology Game. The exhibit where visitors become anthropologists. Discover that economic and social roles of the sexes are not universally the same. Giound floor. No closing date.
On Your Own at Field Museum. Self-guided tour book- lets, adult- and family-oriented, available for 25c at entrance to the Museum Shop, main floor north.
Weekend Discovery Programs. Guided tours, demon- strations, and participatory museum-related activities. Every Saturday and Sunday, 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.
Audio Information System. The museum's newly installed audio system, Uniguide, enables visitors of all ages to visit se- lected exhibits in any sequence. Audio receivers and maps available for $1.25 per person, $3.75 for a family of up to 5 at the entrance to the Museum Shop, main floor north.
Calendar continued on back cover
19
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January & February at Field Museum
(CALENDAR continued from inside back cover)
Figures atop new Pawnee earth lodge. Hall 5
Ron Testa
Pawnee Earth Lodge. Field Museum's newest permanent exhibit, in Hall 5. is a traditional Pawnee earth lodge— the home and ceremonial center of Pawnee Indians as it existed in the mid- 1800s. Daily programs provide opportunities to learn about Pawnee culture. Public programs: Monday through Friday. 12:30 p.m.: weekends. 11:15 a.m.. and 12:30 p.m. Beginning in February: Monday through Friday. 1:15 p.m.: weekends. 11:00 a.m. and 1:15 p.m. Tickets may be picked up 15 minutes prior to the program at the North information booth. Programs are limited to 30 people.
January and February Hours
(through February 15)
The Museum Opens daily at 9:00 a.m. and closes at 4:00 p.m. Monday through Thursday: Saturdays and Sundays. 5:00 p.m. On Fridays the museum is open to 9:00 p.m.
The Museum Library is open weekdays 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Obtain a pass at reception desk, main floor.
Museum telephone: 922 9410
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin
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PERU'S GOLDE
ASURES
Members' Ffeuiew
Wednesday, Feb. 15, 10
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
February, 1978 Vol. 49, No. 2
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production: Oscar Anderson Calendar: Nika Semkoff Levi-Setti Staff photographer: Ron Testa
CONTENTS
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
President and Director: E. Leland Webber
Board of Trustees
William G . Swartchild, Jr..
chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O.Bass Gordon Bent Harry O.Bercher Bowen Blair Stanton R. Cook O.C. Davis
William R. Dickinson. Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Marshall Field Nicholas Galitzine Paul W. Goodrich Hugo J. Melvoin William H. Mitchell Charles F. Murphy, Jr. James J. O'Connor James H. Ransom Mrs. Joseph E. Rich John S. Runnells William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H.Strotz John W. Sullivan Edward R. Telling Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Julian B. Wilkins Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
William McCormick Blair Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg Samuel Insull, Jr. William V. Kahler Remick McDowell J. Roscoe Miller James L. Palmer John T. Pirie, Jr. Donald Richards John G. Searle John M. Simpson J. Howard Wood
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6 a year; $3 a year for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago. II. 60605. ISSN: 00154)703.
12 14 18 19 27
Peru's Golden Treasures
On view February 16 through May 21 by Robert A. Feldman, research assistant in anthropology
Photos on this page and on pages 5, 8, 9, 20, 24, and 25 are of artifacts seen Feb. 16 through May 21 in Hall 26, comprising part of Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit
Royal Burials of Ancient Peru
by Geoffrey W. Conrad
Field Briefs
Our Environment
Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series
Fieldiana: Index to 1977 Titles
February and March at Field Museum
Calendar of coming events
COVER
Ancient Peruvian gold pin with stylized bird on monkey's back. The bird's eyes are of turquoise . Moche culture. Height: 15.6 cm. Photo courtesy the American Museum of Natural History. This artifact, with other treasures, is to be seen in Hall 26 Feb. 16 through May 21. See "Peru's Golden Treasures," p. 3. Other ancient Peruvian artifacts are shown on pages 4, 5, 8, 9, 20, 24, and 25.
"Peru's Golden Treasures" has come to the United States under the auspices of the government of Peru. Its appearance in the United States has been organized by the American Museum of Natural History, and the exhibit is supported by a federal indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities. All items in the collection were assembled by Sr. Miguel Mujica Gallo of the Museo Oro del Peru.
PERU'S GOLDEN TREASURES
Members' Preview
Wednesday, Feb. 15
10 a.m. to 10 p.m. Hall 26 Please present membership card or pre- view noticein this BuWetinforadmission.
Field Museum volunteers Hermann C. Bowersox and William E. McCarthy assisted in the editorial preparation of this issue.
Peru's Golden Treasures
By Robert A. Feldman
On February 16, the special exhibition "Peru's Golden Treasures" will open its doors, presenting more than 220 pieces of ancient Peruvian metalwork from the collection of the Museo Oro del Peru. These will be supplemented by more than 50 pieces from the collections of Field Museum and Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
Through this exhibit we hope to provide a glimpse of life in ancient Peru. It is a small slice, cut chiefly from the world of the nobility, but it does yield an interesting bit of the flavor of the most spectacular native society to be encountered by the Spanish explorers of the 16th century.
"Peru's Golden Treasures" is an unusual exhibit. While the conquistadores found vast quantities of gold in Peru, almost none survives today in its original form. In their frenzied efforts to get gold, the conquerors literally tore apart temples and tombs; when they could find no more already wrought, they forced the Indians to mine more. It is almost a miracle that there are any Peruvian gold artifacts left for us to admire. Indeed, it is only because the artifacts have become more valuable than their metal that modern looters— the ones responsible for uncovering most of the tombs even today — don't melt them down for bullion.
What remains shows the mastery over the medium that Peruvian craftsmen possessed. Most Peruvian metalwork was based on the use of hammered sheets which were bent, cut, soldered, em- bossed, or otherwise worked into often complex patterns. Elaborate castings were made using the lost-wax method; two or more metals could be cast onto each other, or onto hammered pieces. Alloys low in gold were gilded to look like the pure metal. Gold was contrasted with inlays of turquoise, jet, mother-of-pearl, or red Spondylus shell, or used with wood, tropical feathers, or multi-colored paint. Gold, silver, or copper bangles were sewn to clothing; large sheets relieved the monotony of stone or adobe walls in palaces and shrines.
While metal was used widely, the type depended on the status of the user. Copper and bronze served the commoner, but gold was reserved for the nobility. A copper fishhook or needle saw much actual use, while their golden counterparts' uses were more symbolic, as with the silver shovels often used in modern ground-breaking ceremonies. In a similar way, the golden vessels and beakers in this exhibit could have held chicha for a nobleman as he opened a public feast or toasted the mummified remains of his dead ancestors, while the commoners who followed him in drinking used cups of pottery.
The objects in this exhibit are works of beauty, providing a reflection of the artistic conceptions of their makers. Yet these arti- facts, however beautiful, come to us lifeless, stripped by the tomb- robbers of whatever they might have told us about the death and life of their ancient owners. How old were these Peruvians when they died, what else did they have with them in the grave, what reflection of their lives could have been found if their tombs had not been plundered? These things we will never know.
Slowly, Archaeologists and Historians are sifting through the rubble and records left from the conquest, finding lost fragments that can be pieced together to give a picture of the past. In this issue of the Bulletin we present a report by Harvard University anthropologist Geoffrey W. Conrad on the progress of this work, and offer some illumination on the lives and deaths of the ancient Peruvians. The artifacts shown on the cover and on pages 4, 5, 8, 9, 20, 24, and 25 are among the treasures exhibited in hall 26 February 16 through May 21. □
Robert A. Feldman is a research assistant in the Department of An- thropology.
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Illustrations from Nueva Coronica Y Buen Gobierno, by Felipe Cuaman Pola de Ayala, published ca. 1615, and showing (1. to r.) Inca emperor
Atahualpa receiving Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish conqueror; cere- mony inaugurating the growing season; a burial. 3
Bird-shaped vessel. Eyes of turquoise. Height 15.2 Possibly Chimu. Height 15.2
Left and below: ceremonial knives, or tumi. Chimu; 27. 7 and 33.6 cm, respectively, not to scale.
Pair of highly detailed ear ornaments. In center of disc is bird with eyes of turquoise. Moche. Length 28.8 and 28.5 cm. Detail below.
Royal Burials
of Ancient Peru
By Geoffrey W. Conrad
Photos courtesy of the author
Chan Chan, one of the largest archaeological sites in the New World, lies near the mouth of the Moche Valley on the north coast of Peru. Founded at a date that is not entirely certain, Chan Chan flourished from about A.D. 1200 to 1470 as the capital of a prehistoric state known as the Chimu empire, or kingdom of Chimor. At the height of their power, just before their conquest by the expanding Inca empire, the lords of Chan Chan ruled the northernmost 1,000 kilo- meters of Peru's coastal desert.
Today, five centuries after it was abandoned, the capital of Chimor is still a vast, imposing city. Its ruins sprawl over some 25 square kilometers (roughly 10 square miles). Included among its varied architectural remains are adobe brick compounds, courts, pyramids, and other buildings, along with deep wells, sunken gardens, and the fieldstone bases of the tens of thousands of small rooms that housed the bulk of Chan Chan's popu- lation. Despite devastating earthquakes and rare but highly destructive rains, some of the major walls con- tinue to stand nearly 10 meters in height.
At the heart of the city is a civic center covering about 6 square kilometers. This "downtown" area is dominated by 10 huge, high-walled compounds mea- suring up to several hundred meters on a side. Inside each great enclosure are courtyards, rows of storerooms, administrative facilities, wells, and other constructions. These internal subdivisions are connected by labyrin- thine passageways that would have made it virtually impossible for anyone who did not belong in the com- pound to find his way about.
In 9 of the 10 compounds the largest single struc- ture is a platform-shaped mound with steeply sloping
sides and multiple internal chambers, or cells. At first glance, the most striking aspect of these mounds is the damage wrought upon them by generations of looters. A few platforms are relatively well preserved, but most look as if they had been directly hit by a stick of bombs.
From mid-1970 through mid-1972 my co-workers and I spent a total of 14 months studying these plat- forms—surveying all of them, intensively excavating one, and testing the others. Before these investigations Andean archaeologists had not realized that the plat- forms should be grouped together as one type of building. Instead, individual platforms had been identified as everything from harems to granaries to prisons. How- ever, our work showed that all of the mounds were actu- ally extremely prestigious funeral places, and we dubbed them "burial platforms." In the course of our work we also came to realize that these structures embodied im- portant, but intangible, aspects of Chimu culture: princi- ples of social structure, political organization, law, and religious belief.
Our research showed that despite differences in detail, the burial platforms shared certain basic char- acteristics. Each is a truncated pyramidal mound con- taining multiple cells that must be entered from above. Access to the top of the platform, thence to the internal chambers, is via a ramp or system of ramps along the north face of the mound. Entrance to the ramp system is restricted and controlled by a forecourt built adjacent to the north side of the mound. All of these construc-
Geoffrey W. Conrad is assistant professor of anthropology at Harvard University.
Aerial view of part of the civic center of Chan Chan. Two of the city's great compounds ("palaces") lie in the foreground. Ar-
rows indicate the burial platforms inside these buildings. The total extent of Chan Chan was about 10 square miles.
tions are surrounded by an enclosure wall that separates the burial platform complex from its surroundings.
Wherever the arrangement of the cells in a plat- form is still apparent, it follows a standard pattern. The central location is occupied by a large chamber shaped like the letter t, with the cross to the north. Around this principal chamber are smaller, rectangular, secondary cells. We believe that all of the platforms originally fol- lowed this pattern, an idea supported by an unusual source of archaeological information— the distribution of the destruction caused by looters. Even in the most heavily damaged mounds the best preserved sections are the peripheries, which consistently contain only secondary cells. The destruction is always greatest in the center of a platform, exactly where its principal T-shaped cell should have been.
Another architectural characteristic of the burial platforms is the presence of structural additions erected after the construction of the original mound. These additions are of two types, primary-stage and secondary- stage.
Nearly all of the burial platforms have a primary- stage addition, which invariably takes the form of a U-shaped ring surrounding the original mound on all but the north side. Primary-stage additions contain only rectangular secondary cells.
Many of the platforms also have a secondary- stage addition. These latter structures vary in detail, but they always appear as miniature burial platforms built near or adjacent to the original mound. The cells in secondary-stage additions are more elaborate than the rectangular chambers of the primary-stage additions.
"Tweezer" pendant. A gold ring supports "tweezers" in lunate form. Moche, height 10.8 cm.
Stylized puma of hammered sheet gold. Moche. Length 64
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Stylized bat. Gold sheet with traces of red paint. Nazca. Width 31 cm.
Peruvian Tour for Members May 16-30
MODERN LIMA, Indian Cuzco, colonial Trujillo, and fabulous Machu Picchu are just some of the colorful highlights of a 15-day tour of Peru ex- clusively for Field Museum Members. The departure date from Chicago is May 16; the group returns May 30. In addition to the many archaeological and tourists' attractions on the itinerary are a good number of sites rarely visited by the conventional tour. Deluxe hotel accommodations have also been reserved. Dr. Michael Moseley, Field Museum associate
curator, whose specialty is Middle and South American archaeology and ethnology, will lead the group. He has done extensive excavation work at sites to be visited.
TOTAL COST of the tour, which includes a $250.00 tax-deductible contribution, is $2,195.00. For further information, write to Dorothy Roder, Membership Secretary, Field Museum, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605, or call her at 922-9546.
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In fact, in several platform complexes it is clear that the secondary-stage addition contains smaller replicas of the principal T-shaped chamber of the main mound.
The contents of the burial platforms are as special- ized as their architecture. First, as their very name im- plies, the mounds hold large numbers of human bones. Only one platform— one of the smallest— was intensively excavated, and even then no more than a quarter of the backdirt filling its 25 chambers was removed. Nonethe- less, traces of at least 93 burials were recovered. Only one cell was fully cleared; it held 13 complete skeletons stacked like cordwood, along with the partial remains of at least 11 more bodies. (It took me three full days to map and remove all this skeletal material, and the mem- ory is still vivid. I spent the whole time squatting like a baseball catcher, unable to move my feet for fear of breaking the bones of a dead Chimu.) It seems safe to say that this platform originally held several hundred
Reconstruction of the excavated burial platform. The gray area is the original platform; note the principal T-shaped chamber in the center and the surrounding rectangular secondary cells. Surrounding the gray area, below and to the sides, is the plat- form's primary-stage addition, a U-shaped ring containing only secondary cells.
individuals. Intriguingly, all of the bones that could be diagnosed were those of adolescent girls and young women.
Second, the platforms contain the greatest con- centrations of prestigious objects in Chan Chan. Frag- ments of fine pottery, fancy textiles, carved wood, weav- ing equipment, and copper metal work were all encoun- tered in quantity. Another abundant item was the bright red shell of Spondylus, a marine mollusk native to warm coastal waters north of Peru. Both whole shells and a pink powder produced by crushing and grinding them were found. Prehistoric peoples of coastal Ecuador, where Spondylus is common, used the mollusk simply as a source of food, but in Peru its shells were imported status symbols.
Conspicuously absent from this list of highly valued artifacts is metalwork in silver and gold, a con- dition which is not surprising. While modern looters ransack the ruined platforms in search of fine pottery for the illegal antiquities market, gold and silver were the goals of the treasure-hunters who first plundered the platforms more than 400 years ago. In fact, a docu- ment discovered in an archive in the nearby city of Trujillo indicates that during the Spanish Colonial era the burial platforms were treated for legal purposes as gold and silver mines. The mounds were exploited under the laws governing mining operations, with the Spanish crown taking its "royal fifth" of the booty. In short, the platforms must have once contained huge quantities of gold and silver objects similar to the Chimu artifacts in Field Museum's exhibition Peru's Golden Treasures, opening February 15.
Finally, our investigations revealed two more crucial facts about the burial platforms. First, they were the most opulent and prestigious funeral places in the Chimu empire. Second, the platforms (and the great com- pounds that house them) were built one at a time. These facts, along with the information discussed above and several other lines of evidence, lead to one conclusion: the burial platforms were the tombs of the kings of Chimor.
Our data support the following reconstruction of the use of a Chan Chan burial platform. Each of these structures was built by one of the kings of Chimor, whose death set in motion a series of elaborate funeral cere- monies extending over a considerable period of time. After careful preparation the dead king's body was placed in the principal T-shaped chamber of his burial
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Assorted bones in one of the secondary cells of the excavated It may once have held 24 bodies; 24 right calcanei (heel bones) platform. This small chamber contained 13 complete skeletons. were found among its contents.
platform. Great quantities of offertory goods were in- stalled with him and in some or all of the secondary cells.
Ritual human sacrifice must also have been an im- portant part of Chimor's royal funeral rites. Such a practice is the most satisfactory explanation for the fact that all of the diagnostic bones from the excavated burial platform were those of adolescent girls and young women. These bones are probably the remains of young women— servants and subsidiary wives— who were ceremonially killed and then placed in some or all of the platform's cells to accompany the king and stress his importance.
Large numbers of llamas were also sacrificed during the ceremonies. However, to judge from the available information, these animals were not placed in the platform's cells. Instead, they were interred beneath the floor of the burial platform complex, just inside the enclosing wall.
Some time passed after the completion of this first phase of the mortuary rites; I suspect, but cannot prove, that the interval was fixed by law. After this time had elapsed, the dead king was commemorated by re- peating aspects of his funeral ceremony. A primary-stage structural addition— a u-shaped block containing further
secondary cells— was erected around three sides of the king's burial platform. The new secondary cells in the addition were then stacked with further offertory goods and human sacrifices.
Secondary-stage additions also contained burials and offerings, but they were not equivalent to their primary-stage counterparts. Instead, the elaborate nature of the former shows that they held persons of high social position. While those individuals were obvi- ously not the equals of the dead king, the fact that some of them were interred in smaller replicas of the ruler's T-shaped burial chamber argues that they were closely affiliated with him. I suggest that the secondary-stage addition to a burial platform was a funeral place reserved for important relatives and descendants of the deceased king.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the pattern described above is that, after an initial period of experi- mentation and variability, it became rigidified and was repeated by every king of Chimor. That is, each Chimu ruler built his own burial platform. The importance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that it had parallels in the Inca empire which were reported by the early Spanish chroniclers. Although their written records deal primari-
(Continued on p. 21)
11
FIELD BRIEFS
What's in a Name?
Animal hybrids generally look like per- fectly reasonable, functional creatures, though their parents may view them with curiosity, suspicion, or even alarm. Their genes, too, may be in a state of discontent, for a good many such cross- es are sterile, no matter how vigorously the animals may attempt to emulate the fecundity of their forebears.
Ken Grabowski, Field Museum library assistant, has noted that while hybrids often do not bear young, they frequently do bear names that have a certain felicitous ring to them, suggest- ing that Lewis Carroll, James Joyce, or even Doctor Seuss may have had something to do with their naming. Grabowski's research into the matter has yielded a collection of such names, including those on the list below. At- tentive readers will note that the par- ents are sometimes subspecies within the same species, more commonly dif- ferent species within the same genus, and occasionally species of different genera.
asbra: offspring of male donkey (Equus
asinus) and female zebra (E. bur-
chelli) carideer: male caribou (Rangifer taran-
dus caribou) with female reindeer
(R. tarandus) cattalo: male domestic bovine (Bos
taurus) with female bison (Bison
bison) coydog: male domestic dog (Canis
familiaris) with female coyote
(C. latrans) hinny: male horse (Equus caballus)
with female ass (E. asinus ) huarizo: male llama (Lama glama) with
female alpaca (L. pacos ) leopon: male leopard (Panthera pardus)
with female lion (P. leo ) liger: male lion (Panthera leo) with fe- male tiger (P. tigris) llamahuanaco: male guanaco (Lama
guanicoe) with female llama (L.
glama ) llama vicuna: male vicuna (Vicugna
vicugna) with female llama (Lama
glama )
machurga: male alpaca (Lama pacos) with female llama (L. glama)
misti: male alpaca (Lama pacos) with female llama (L. glama )
mule: male ass (Equus asinus) with
female horse (E. caballus)
onza: male jaguar (Panthera onca) with female cougar (Felis concolor)
ovid: male goat (Capra hircus) with fe- male sheep ( Ov is aries )
paco vicuna: male vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) with female alpaca (Lama pacos )
podiac bear: male polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus ) with female Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi)
tigon: male tiger (Panthera tigris) with female lion (P. leo)
yakalo: male yak (Bos grunniens) with female bison (Bison bison )
zebroid: male zebra (Equus burchelli) with female horse (E. caballus )
Museum Operations Conference March 29-31
Commercial activities of museums, the ethical and legal implications of curator and trustee collecting, the new copy- right law, and new federal regulations concerning handicapped museum visi- tors and job applicants, will be among the topics discussed at the sixth annual Conference on Legal Aspects of Mu- seum Operations, to be held at Field Museum March 29-31. The conference is cosponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and the American Law In- stitute-American Bar Association's Committee on Continuing Professional Education.
Legal Aspects of Museum Opera- tions will provide museum adminis- trators, museum counselors, and other lawyers with up-to-date, practical infor- mation on legal problems confronting museums.
The registration fee for the three- day conference is $225, which includes all sessions, study outlines and related materials, three luncheons, and a re- ception. Overnight accommodations
have been reserved at hotels within walking distance of the Museum.
For further information write: Legal Aspects of Museum Operations, ALI-ABA Committees; 4025 Chestnut Street; Philadelphia, PA 19104.
It is anticipated that scholarships for partial support of tuition and travel expenses will be available for those who cannot attend without financial aid. Persons interested in applying for such assistance should submit a statement justifying their request and a personal resume to Museum Scholarship Com- mittee, c/o the ALI-ABA Committee.
Bushman Bust Located
The mystery of Bushman, Field Mu- seum's celebrated gorilla, has been solved. The September 1977 Bulletin carried a feature article on Bushman, with an accompanying photo (p. 9) of a "bronze" bust of the gorilla. The photo caption read "The identity of the sculp- tor (the man in the photo?) and the present location of the fine bust are a mystery."
Subsequently, Field Museum mem- bers John Moyer and Norman H. Ger- lach individually wrote to clear up most of the questions. The present location of the bust, they point out, is the library of Chicago's Adventurer's Club (310 S. Michigan Avenue), where it has been for a number of years. It is made of plaster, not bronze, and was completed in 1947. Moyer and Gerlach, both mem- bers of the Adventurer's Club, also identify the sculptor as C. J. Albrecht, Field Museum's taxidermist from 1926 to 1945. Albrecht retired many years ago and is believed to reside today in Clitherall, Minnesota. The man in the photo remains unidentified.-
James H. Quinn
James Harrison Quinn, former chief geology preparator at Field Museum, died September 14 at the age of 71. He
12
was killed in a rock fall while fossil- collecting on the Snake River, in north- western Nebraska. Born in Ainsworth, Nebraska, in 1906, Quinn came to Field Museum in 1930 at the age of 24 and left in 1947. His 17-year tenure at Field Museum was notable for his prepara- tion of hundreds of fossil specimens and for two remarkable preparation tech- nique which he innovated.
Quinn's secondary school education was delayed, but he managed by the age of 24 to secure his high school diploma, graduating as valedictorian. At 41, after leaving Field Museum, he began work toward his bachelor's degree at the University of Arizona where, in due course, he earned his B.Sc. Subsequently he received his Ph.D. in geology at the University of Texas. For the next 19 years— until his retirement— Quinn was on the faculty of the University of Arkansas, where he taught geomorphology and paleontology. His bibliography in- cludes 55 papers, the final one appear- ing in Field Museum's continuing monograph series Fieldiana: Geology: "Sedimentary Processes in Rayon- noceras Burial" (1977).
His best known preparation tech- nique was a method (long used but now superseded) of making plaster casts of fossils with latex as the mold- ing medium. Quinn also devised the remarkable "Quinn skeleton mounter," a familiar sight in the geology prepara- tory lab for many years. This con- sisted of ball-and-socket joints from steering columns, jacks, universal joints, and other automobile parts. Together, these provided an adjustable temporary support while a large skele- ton was being posed, until permanent supporting irons could be formed and placed. Prior to Quinn's invention, a great clutter of miscellaneous support props would usually accumulate around a specimen being mounted, and every adjustment in pose would require a laborious disassembly and reconstruc- tion of the unwieldy temporary sup- ports.
A fine example of Quinn's work is shown here, with three stages of the reconstruction of Teleoceras fossiger, an aquatic rhinoceros that occurred in North America about 10 million years ago. Quinn's reconstruction may be seen today in Hall 38.
— William Turnbull, curator of fossil mammals
"Quinn's skeleton mounter," an adjustable metal frame consisting of automobile parts.
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Teleoceras fossiger with Quinn's device supporting the skeleton.
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The complete Teleoceras skeleton with permanent irons in place of the temporary adjustable supports.
13
OUR ENVIRONMENT
Bye-Bye Birdwing
Trading in butterflies is big business. Big enough for one country, Taiwan, to earn £12 million a year from exports. Big enough for wealthy collectors to pay up to £750 for single specimens.
Last year even the business columns of London newspapers were urging stock marketeers to buy rare butterflies as a hedge against inflation. It was an unfortunate tip, to say the least. For the most sought-after species, the birdwing family, are now in danger of being hounded to extinction. The biggest butterfly of all, Queen Alexandra's bird- wing, is found only in a few remote local- ities in Papua New Guinea. Yet even here, in some of the most inaccessible places left on earth, it has become an en- dangered species.
With its eleven-inch wingspan and purposeful, batlike flight, the Queen Alexandra's birdwing is so big that the first specimens captured were brought down from treetop height by shotgun. Less drastic but far more effective methods are used to catch it now that hunters have discovered its fatal weak- ness—a fondness for urine.
To make matters worse, the moun- tain rain-forest haunts of the great bird- wings, in Papua New Guinea, the Mo- luccas and the Solomon Islands, are being destroyed by logging and mining companies— a threat which most conser- vationists regard as infinitely more serious than the collectors.
When the danger became clear, the government of Papua New Guinea ban- ned the collection of all but two species of birdwing. And yet illegal trafficking continues. Government officials esti- mate that £70,000 worth of protected birdwings are on sale in Britain and Germany alone. At least two European collectors have been fined and deported from New Guinea in the last 18 months.
Nevertheless, half a dozen illegal birdwing collectors— three Japanese and three Europeans, one of whom poses as as a representative of the British Museum of Natural History— are still operating there.
The butterflies reach the outside
world via Australia, where they are smuggled aboard international flights for London, Tokyo, and the United States.
One of the liveliest markets for but- terflies is Japan, where firms like the In- sect Educational Centre, run by the New Science Publishing Company, sell rare birdwings for up to £45 each. An- other Japanese dealer, Mr. Seiji Sakai, of Tokyo, has been privately offering fresh papered specimens of Rothschild's birdwing, a protected species from West Irian, for $850 a pair.
It was also the Japanese, a century ago, who introduced butterfly collecting to Taiwan— now the world leader in but- terfly exploitation, where trading has reached industrial proportions and pro- duction lines of up to 50 women toil for 14 hours a day. Butterflies are heaped on tables in piles of 10,000 or so. The wom- an carefully tear off the wings and paste them to simulated paper bodies which are then pressed between laminated vinyl sheets to be turned into book markers, coasters, or table mats.
Although Britain can hardly com- pete with Taiwan, the trade here is brisk enough to sustain several dealers and butterfly farms, some of whom produce lavish catalogs to advertise their wares. These range from single "papered" (i.e., unmounted) specimens for serious col- lectors to whole groups of exotic species, speared on pins in gilt-framed display cases or set in ornamental gift boxes.
It is this growing fad for insects as home decor that is really alarming the conservationists. Nowaways butterflies are being sold in seaside gift shops, high street stores and even supermarkets. Butterfly jewellery made from the ir- idescent blue wings of South American Morpho butterflies is a popular novelty.
The biggest breeder and dealer in England is probably Robert Goodden, director of Worldwide Butterflies, whose three-acre butterfly farm near Yeovil has a home-grown jungle under glass for visitors to watch tropical butterflies on the wing.
Goodden, who sells everything from a 90-pence pack of caterpillars to exotic dead butterflies at £33 each, stoutlv de-
fends his trade. "We have increased interest in butterflies in this country more than anyone," he says. "Nor do I disapprove of children chasing butter- flies with a net. That is how people be- come interested."
But Goodden himself believes the time will come when collecting has to stop.
In 1974 he was largely responsible for setting up the Entomological Sup- pliers Association, to which most lead- ing British dealers now belong. The esa has its own voluntary conservation code and has drawn up a "red list" of en- dangered species which members pro- mise not to buy or sell. Since last year this has included all the protected bird- wings.
Unfortunately not all British dealers are bound by the esa code. Nor is it il- legal for these butterflies to be sold in Britain. As a result, protected species from Papua New Guinea are still being offered by some British dealers for any- thing up to £200 a pair.
But whatever the state of the mar- ket in Britain, butterfly-collecting has become a big-money sport on the Con- tinent, with collectors' clubs, poaching gangs and a fortnightly catalogue of prices— the Insektenborse— published by the specialist West German magazine Entomologische Zeitschrift.
In France, the activities of Europe's avaricious collector-dealer complex are causing heartache in the Hautes Alpes. About 10 years ago the Insektenborse reported that a valley near Digne con- tained several unique species of butter- flies. The result was that over the next few years the locality became a venue for hunters from all over the world.
The valley was a haven for one spe- cies in particular, the Glory of the Gauls. It was discovered only 30 years ago near the village of L'Argentiere-la-Bessee. It is now almost extinct.
Laments Dr. Guy Droit, a leading protectionist who lives nearby: "What we are witnessing is the total destruc- tion of a fragile and beautiful form of life. When it has gone we shall all be poorer." — Brian Jackman, from the London Times.
14
Habitat Rating System
Habitat suitability, while certainly one of the most important parameters in any wildlife management plan, is also one of the most difficult to quantify. Traditionally, wildlife managers have relied on the expertise of an independent authority in assessing the potential of a given land area to support a particular species. Although in many instances such an individualized analysis has been adequate, the possibility of applying such a system on a broad scale has severe limitations. In many respects, habitat evaluation has been a person- alized art rather than a science.
Biologists with the Missouri De- partment of Conservation, reports Con- servation News, are working to change this, however. After more than three years of intensive study, Jack Stanford, a quail biologist with the department, believes he has perfected a system which will enable managers to evaluate habitat suitability for nearly any species on an objective, numerical basis.
Under Stanford's Numerical Rating of Parameters system, a given plot of land is analysed according to the fre- quency of vegetative encounters. The basic tool of the evaluation is aerial photography. From an aerial census, a straight line is plotted. Along the tran- sect line vegetative encounters are broken down into three critical com- ponents: diversity— the number of changes in vegetative types that are found; composition — the actual makeup of these vegetative types; and, inter- spersion— the mix of these types. Then, based on the biological requirements of a particular species, the observations are given a numerical value on a scale of 2 to 12 based on how well they satisfy the needs of that species.
For example, cornfields are im- portant feeding areas for quail. Yet without the protective cover of nearby woodlots of extensive fencerows, their value as quail habitat is only minimal. Thus, a grainfield next to a barren pasture might score only a two, while a cornfield bordered by a shrubby fence- row might score as high as 10 or 12. Stanford emphasizes that diversity, composition, and interspersion are in- tegrated to formulate the overall assess- ment. He notes that none can stand alone in the context of the evaluation.
Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl
Every year around 20 million waterfowl die during migration — from Canada to wintering grounds and back to breeding grounds in Canada— from various causes that do not include kills by hunting. Included in this mortality, though, are 1.6 - 2.4 million birds that die of lead poisoning.
Milton Friend, director of the Na- tional Wildlife Health Laboratory, in Madison, Wisconsin, reports that lead poisoning may be the most common disease in waterfowl across the country. The man-made disease erupts after waterfowl ingest spent lead shot— deposited at the rate of 3,000 tons annually— which breaks down to lead salts in the bird's body and enters the bloodstream with lethal effects.
The fws laboratory regularly samples specimens picked up through- out the United States. "Regardless of where we get the specimens from, a representative number of those dead birds will be positive for lead poi- soning," says Friend. Findings at the laboratory disclosed a high prevalence of lead in samples from California to Massachusetts, and from South Dakota to Texas.
Lead poisoning is primarily a dis- ease that occurs after the hunting season. The major source of lead shot in birds is the annual deposition put down from hunting. During the hunting sea- son, the pressure of human activity keeps the birds moving, thus pro- hibiting normal bird use of areas being hunted.
Following the season, the birds ordinarily resume natural feeding habits which involve a greater use of hunted areas. At this time they are exposed to lead shot at a much higher rate, Friend said. A case in point: the die-off of approximately 4,000 Canada geese last winter in southern Illinois. The birds took on nourishment in winter wheat fields. "That's where the goose blinds were; that's where the shooting occurred and the lead was deposited; that's where feed was available," Friend declares.
Another aspect that has not come to full light in assessing the disease is that it doesn't stop, necessarily, with the bird that dies of lead poisoning, the FWS now has several cases on record to confirm secondary lead poison-
ing in bald eagles. Levels of lead in these eagles have conclusively shown they died of secondary lead poisoning.
Administration Would Protect 92 Million Alaskan Acres
The Carter Administration's proposal to give special attention to 92 million of Alaska's 375 million acres has been presented to Congress. The Recom- mendations were made under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.
The administration's recommen- dations would add approximately 45.1 million acres to the National Wildlife Refuge System and 41.7 million acres to the National Park System, more than doubling the size of both systems. The proposal also would include 33 rivers and river segments in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System totaling some 2.5 million acres. It would add about 2.5 million acres to existing national forests in Alaska.
The plan would establish 10 new units of the National Park System while expanding three existing parks. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service would acquire nine new refuges and expand five others. The national forest addi- tions would be to the Chugach and Tongass National Forests in south central and southeastern Alaska.
An earlier draft of the administr- tion's proposal recommended that Admiralty Island, now a part of the Tongass National Forest, be given to the Park Service for a "National Pre- serve." The final version, however, suggested that the island remain in the forest and be designated official wild- erness.
Largest of the national park pro- posals is the Wrangell-St. Elias, a wild area of 18,000 square miles in south- eastern Alaska adjoining Canada's Kluane National Park. It contains the nation's greatest collection of peaks over 16,000 feet, including Mount St. Elias, at 18,008 feet the second highest in North America.
Further north is the existing Mount McKinley National Park, established in 1917 and containing North America's highest peak, Mount McKinley at 20,320 feet. The park would be enlarged to 5.7 million acres and renamed Denali, the Alaska Indian name for the great peak.
15
Peru's Golden Treasures Lecture Series
A special lecture series in March brings well known experts in the field of South American ethnology and archaeology to lecture on aspects of ancient Peruvian culture and history. Series and single tickets are available. Please use the coupon below (or facsimile) .
Before each lecture, at 6:00 p.m., a special dinner will be available to members. This meal is by reservation only; the price is $7.00. The reservation form below (or facsimile) may be used. Members may make reservations for the lecture series and dinners for their guests. Limited to 400 reservations. All lectures are at 8:00 p.m., Friday evenings, in James Simpson Theatre, west door entrance.
March 3
Treasures Lost: The Gold of the Inca. Lecturer is Craig Morris, assistant curator of South Ameri- can archaeology, American Museum of Natural History.
Few pieces of gold from the Inca period survived Spanish greed which turned most of their price- less objects into ingots. Fortunately, sixteenth century eyewitnesses to the capture of the Inca empire wrote down much of what they noted
about the use of gold in the last few days of the native state. In addition to intriguing descriptions of the objects we get glimpses of the uses of gold — as personal adornment, as a symbol of the sun god, and as a material used to make replicas of plants, animals, and temple gardens. Dr. Morris's lecture concentrates on the unusual role of gold in Inca society.
March 10
Chan Chan, The Andean Desert Empire. Lecturer is Michael Moseley, associate curator of Middle and South American archaeology and ethnology, Field Museum.
On the north Coast of Peru, the Chimu empire stretched along the Pacific shoreline from Ecua- dor to Lima. The Chimu imperial capital was the vast city of Chan Chan, the ruins of which extend over more than ten square kilometers of desert. This illustrated lecture focuses on Chan Chan and Chimu society. It will draw upon the latest research results of Field Museum's archeo- logical expedition, which is currently exploring the sprawling ruins and the foundations of the Chimu economy.
16
Above and at right: portions of adobe friezes found at ancient Peruvian city of Chan Chan
fr $ $ $ $ ft ft
March 17
The Moche: Ancient Peru's Master craftsmen. Lecturer is Christopher Donnan, director of the Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles.
More than 1,000 years before the beginning of the Inca empire, a people we now call Moche flourished on the coastal plain of northern Peru. Although the Moche had no writing system, they produced a vivid artistic record of their activities and their environment in beautifully modeled and painted ceramics, elaborately woven textiles, and exquisitely crafted objects of copper, silver, and gold. This lecture focuses on the technology as well as the iconographic meaning of Moche art.
Peru's Golden Treasures Lecture Series
Reservations
Please make the following reservations in my name : members' tickets ($7.00 ea.) for lecture series
(quantity)
. nonmembers' tickets ($10.00 ea.) for lecture series .members' tickets ($2.50 ea.) for March 3 lecture . nonmembers' tickets ($3.50 ea.) for March 3 lecture . members' tickets ($2.50 ea.) for March 10 lecture .nonmembers' tickets ($3.50 ea.) for March 10 lecture .members' tickets ($2.50 ea.) for March 17 lecture . nonmembers' tickets ($3.50 ea.) for March 17 lecture .members' tickets for March 3 dinner, $7.00 ea. .members' tickets for March 10 dinner. $7.00 ea. . members' tickets for March 17 dinner, $7.00 ea.
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Address
Mail this reservation form (or facsimile) to: Peru's Golden Treasures Lecture Series, Field Museum, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605
17
Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series
March and April
Saturdays, 2:30p.m. James Simpson Theatre
The new ground-level west door entrance provides free ad- mission to James Simpson Theatre. However, access to other museum areas requires the regular fee or membership iden- tification. These illustrated lectures are approximately 90
minutes long, and are recommended for adults. Doors open at 1:45 p.m.; a limited section of reserved seats is available for members and families on days of the lectures until 2:25 p.m.
March 4
Treasures of kali; by Kenneth Richter
Join the tour at dawn on majestic Mt. Etna, continue down through the countryside to the Greek theatre in Taormina. Visit archaeology students searching for evidence of the mysterious Etruscans; view Roman architecture, medieval pageantry, and the landmarks of Florence that echo the birth of the Renaissance.
March 11
India
by Jens Bjerre
Known as the "golden tour," this journey includes Delhi, one of the oldest capital cities in the world, famous for the Gate of India, the Taj Mahal and 13th century architecture. Calcutta, another face of India, teems with a populace of 10 million. The film-maker inter- twines lifestyles of city and country people in daily life and sacred ritual.
March 18
Mediterranean — East to Istanbul by Fred Bellinger
A rare opportunity to discover beautiful palaces on the Mediterra- nean coast. From historic cities to the picturesque countryside, each camera view is a story of the land and people.
March 25
The Soul of Japan by Ken Wolfgang
The beauty of the Orient and its people is captured in this superb photographic study. Three years of research and film-making pro- duced this remarkable profile of Japan.
April 1
Iran
by Chris Borden
Shrines of mystics and dervishes adorn the countryside. Lush tea
plantations and rice fields border the Caspian Sea in the north; to the south and east hot dry deserts are peopled by nomads. Included on this trip are Teheran, famous and modern: Hamadon, the oldest; Mashhad, the holy city; and Isfahan, the "city of mosques."
April 8
Great Sailing Adventures by Captain Irving Johnson
Loaded to her lines with 5300 tons of cargo, the "Peking" encounters furious storms of the dreaded Cape Horn. This film, held in the archives of the British Museum, is accompanied by another film record, the voyage of the Brigantine "Yankee," which includes spec- tacular footage of the Sepik River.
April 15
Fabulous Rio - Portraits of Brazil by Curtis Nagle
A memorable view of a growing, changing country. See the world- famous carnival in Rio; ultramodern industrial Sao Paulo; colonial Salvador and Ouro Preto; the flora and fauna of the Amazon river; and enjoy a holiday with the gauchos.
April 22
To Spot a Zebra by Quentin Keynes
Join the film-maker on an expedition to Africa to find the only known spotted zebra. Keynes, great-grandson of Charles Darwin, takes us to South Africa, Botswana. Rhodesia. Zambia and a remote corner of Tanzania during his search.
April 29
Mexico-Legend of a Lost Crown by Howard and Lucia Meyers
Film and drama are combined to bring a new dimension to photo- graphic presentations. The splendor of Europe's great palaces and museums is brought together with the story of Maximilian and Carlota on their last mission to Mexico.
18
Fieldiana: 1977 Titles
FlELDIANA is a continuing series of scientific papers and monographs in the disciplines of anthropology, botany, zoology, and geology; the series is intended primarily for exchange- distribution to museums, libraries, and univer- sities, but all titles are also available for public purchase.
The following titles were published
during 1977 and may be ordered from the Division of Publications. Members are entitled to a 10 percent discount. Publication number should accompany order. A catalog of all avail- able Fieldiana titles is available on request. (Please specify discipline: anthropology, bota- ny, geology, or zoology.)
Fieldiana Anthropology
"Human Biogeography in the Solomon Islands," by John Terrell. Vol. 68, No. 1; publication 1257. $2.00
"A.F. Kashevarov's Coastal Explora- tions in Northwest Alaska, 1838," edited by James W. VanStone, trans- lated by David H. Kraus. Vol. 69; pub- lication 1268. $4.00
Fieldiana Botany
"Ferns and Fern Allies of Guatemala Part I Ophioglossaceae through Cya- theaceae," by Robert G. Stolze. Vol. 39; publication 1246. (Pub. Dec. 1976.) $4.75
"Preliminary Taxonomic Studies in the Palm Genus Attalea H.B.K.," by S. F. Glassman. Vol. 38, No. 5; publication
1250. $1.25
"Revision of Oparanthus (Compositae, Heliantheae, Coreopsidinae)," by Tod F. Stuessy. Vol. 38, No. 6; publication
1251. $.75
"Comprehensive Index to the Flora of Guatemala," by Terua P. Williams. Vol. 24, Part XIII; publication 1260. $8.50
"Austral Hepaticae IX Anastrophyllum tristanianum, A New Species from Tristan da Cunha," by John J. Engel. Vol. 38, No. 7; publication 1267. $.75
"Flora Costaricensis," edited by Wil- liam Burger. Vol. 40; publication 1270. Price to be announced.
Fieldiana Geology
"Megapleuron zangerli A New Dipnoan from the Pennsylvanian, Illinois," by Hans-Peter Schultze. Vol. 33, No. 21; publication 1248. $1.25
"A Primitive Pyrothere (Mammalia, Notoungulata) From the Early Tertiary of Northwestern Venezuela," by Bryan Patterson. Vol. 33, No. 22; publication 1249. $1.25
"The Stature and Weight of Sterk- fontein 14, a Gracile Australopithecine from Transvaal, As Determined from the Innominate Bone," by Charles A. Reed and Dean Falk. Vol. 33, No. 23; publication 1252. $1.00
"Tooth Histology and Ultrastructure of a Paleozoic Shark, Edestus hein- richii, " by Katherine Taylor and Thom- as Adamec. Vol. 33, No. 24; publication
1253. $1.75
"New Fossil Polychaete from Essex, Illinois," by Ida Thompson and Ralph G. Johnson. Vol. 33, No. 25; publication
1254. $1.00
"New Information on the Holocystites Fauna ( Diploporita ) of the Middle Silurian of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana," by Terrence J. Frest, Donald G. Milulic, and Christopher R.C. Paul. Vol. 35, No. 6; publication 1255. $1.75
"Cyathocrinites from the Silurian (Wenlock) Strata of Southeastern Indi- ana, by Terrence J. Frest. Vol. 35, No. 7; publ'cation 1256. $1.75
"Type Fossil Miscellanea (Worms, Problematica, Conoidal Shells, Trace Fossils) in Field Museum," by Gerald Glenn Forney, Daniel Jenkins, and Matthew H. Nitecki. Vol. 37, No. 1; publication 1259. $2.00
"New Agnathous Fishes from the Pennsylvanian of Illinois," by David Bardack and Eugene S. Richardson, Jr. Vol. 33, No. 26; publication 1261. $1.25
"Sedimentary Processes in Rayonno- ceras Burial," by James H. Quinn. Vol. 33, No. 27; publication 1262. $.75
"Paraparchites mazonensis n. sp. (Ostracoda) from Middle Pennsylvanian Ironstone Concretions of Illinois," by I.G. Sohn. Vol. 37, No. 2; publication 1263. $1.25
"Cacops (Amphibia: Labyrinthodontia) From the Fort Sill Locality, Lower Permian of Oklahoma," by John R. Bolt. Vol. 37, No. 3 ; publication 1264. $.75
"Type Fossil Coelenterata (Except Corals) in Field Museum of Natural History," by Gerald Glenn Forney, Matthew H. Nitecki, and Daniel T Jenkins. Vol. 37, No. 4; publication 1265. $1.00
"New Information on the Evolution of the Brady odont Chondrichthyes," by Richard Lund. Vol. 33, No. 28; pub- lication 1266. $1.00
Fieldiana Zoology
"A New Chaenopsid Fish, Emblemaria hyltoni, from Isla Roatan, Honduras," by Robert Karl Johnson and David W. Greenfield. Vol. 70, No. 2; publication 1245. (Pub. Dec. 1976.) $.75
"The Larval Characters of Featherwing and Limulodid Beetles and their Family Relationships in the Staphylinoidea (Coleoptera: Ptiliidae and Limulo- didae)," by Henry S. Dybas. Vol. 70, No. 3; publication 1247. (Pub. Dec. 1976.) $2.25
"A Phylogeny of Sea Snakes (Hydro- phiidae)," by Harold K. Voris. Vol. 70, No. 4; publication 1258. $4.25
"The Differentiation of Character State Relationships by Binary Coding and the Monothetic Subset Method," by Hymen Marx, George B. Rabb, and Harold K. Voris. Vol. 72, No. 1 ; publica- tion 1269. $1.25
19
Circular, slightly concave ear ornament, with mosaic of turquoise, mother-of pearl, lapis lazuli, red Spondylus sheet, and possibly jade; border of gold beads. Chimu. Diameter 6.8 cm.
Pair of pendants. Ring supports bird with eyes of turquoise. Moche. Height 8 cm.
20
(Continued from p. 11)
ly with the Incas and say little about the Chimu, they help us to understand characteristics shared by the two empires. More specifically, they enable us to identify the great compounds housing Chan Chan's burial plat- forms and to explain why both sets of structures were built one at a time.
Spanish chronicles relate that the Inca conquest of Chimor coincided with a reorganization of the Inca empire. Chimu administrative principles had been highly sophisticated, and certain aspects of the Inca state seem to have been restructured along Chimu lines.
One of the distinctive features of the revised Inca imperial system was a pattern of "split inheritance" among the royalty. By this, I mean a law of bequeathal
based on two dichotomies: state office vs. personal wealth, and principal vs. secondary heirs. In a pattern of split inheritance the principal heir receives the state office, along with the attendant rights and duties, of a deceased administrator. The latter's property and sources of income are granted to his secondary heirs as a corporate group.
Upon the death of an Inca emperor the rights to govern, to wage war, and to impose taxes on the empire passed directly to his principal heir, who became the next head of state. Future claims to the deceased ruler's lands (which were distributed throughout the provinces of the empire), the tax levies instituted in order to farm them, and their produce were bequeathed to a lineage
"h=^
TIER I
E22SS
pa magBaq^ggaj
'■'.'.V.lT
TIER 2
TIER 4
□na
,;... J'1,"'"'.'::.::":;^i-^
Reconstruction of the burial platform at Chiquitoy Viejo, an Inca provincial administrative center near Chan Chan. Only tier4, the highest part of the plat form, was ever used.
21
made up of his other descendants. These secondary heirs also received their ancestor's buildings, servants, chattel, and the rest of his possessions. In return, they managed his property in his name, cared for his mummy, and maintained his cult. The new ruler was forced to acquire his own wealth by imposing additional taxes on the existing provinces of the empire or by enlarging his domain through new conquests.
Around the time of the conquest of Chimor the emperor Pachakuti remodelled the Inca capital, Cuzco, to befit its status as the predominant political and reli- gious center of the Andean world. In accordance with the law of split inheritance the "new" Cuzco was planned as a settlement in which each ruler built one or more palaces to be the seat of his government and the center for control of his wealth. After his death his residence! s) passed into the hands of his lineage, while his successor built the next palace or palaces.
I am arguing that Chan Chan was built and gov- erned under a system analogous to the one responsible for the form of Inca Cuzco and that the great compounds of the Chimu capital are equivalent to the palaces of its Inca counterpart. My interpretation, then, is as follows.
The major compounds of Chan Chan were the palaces of the kings of Chimor. Each ruler built one such structure to house himself, be the seat of his government, and serve as the center for the management of his wealth. After his death a king was interred in his burial platform while, in accordance with the law of split inheritance, his palace passed to a lineage composed of his secondary heirs. Important members of this descent group conti- nued to occupy the palace and to manage the deceased ruler's estate; some of these individuals were interred in the secondary-stage addition to their ancestor's burial platform. Meanwhile, the dead ruler's principal heir be- came the next king of Chimor and built a new palace and burial platform, repeating the pattern.
Hence, the law of split inheritance emerges as the underlying cause of Chan Chan's repetitive pattern of one king— one palace— one burial platform. Still, we are left with a major question: how did the law itself origi- nate?
I believe that the source of split inheritance lies in the combination of two other factors common to the Chimu and Inca empires: divine kingship and a divine right to property. The Chimu and Incas considered their rulers to be divine or semidivine beings. As a demigod, a Chimu or Inca ruler did not completely forfeit his in- fluence when he died. Although he ceased to be head of state, he retained powers and privileges conferred by his
PERU'S GOLDEN TREASURES
Members' Preview
Wednesday. Feb. 15
divine status. The mummies of past Inca emperors were maintained in state, consulted in times of stress, and brought out to attend important ceremonies, in which they played a vital role. (In fact, these mummies were so revered that the Spanish conquerors eventually went to a great deal of trouble to track down and destroy them. ) Likewise, the primary-stage additions affixed to the burial platforms of Chan Chan show that, as members of the state's religious pantheon, the dead kings of Chimor continued to exercise authority in the world of the living. I think it likely that their mummies, like those of their Inca counterparts, were honored participants in major state ceremonies.
In addition, Chimu and Inca rulers had a divine right to property. The punishment for the theft of an Inca emperor's possession, no matter how small or tri- vial, was death. The Chimu royalty were even harsher: the father and brothers of a thief, as well as anyone who harbored him, were executed along with the criminal himself.
When these two factors were combined, the continuing power of a dead king created certain problems concerning his wealth. That is, in a sense a legal conflict between a deceased ruler and his successor over control of the former's pro- perty was inherent in Chimu and Inca culture. Both men had a divine right to property; in the case of the posses- sions of the dead king, who was still a spiritual presence in the empire, their claims overlapped. This implicit dis- pute could not be settled on the basis of status, since the two contestants were equals. Therefore, it was settled on the basis of priority. Because the dead king had the earlier claim to his wealth, it remained his property and was given in trust to a lineage of secondary heirs, who managed it for him. Accordingly, split inheritance may be seen as a law formulated to resolve an innate conflict created by the combination of divine kingship and the divine right to property.
One immediate effect of split inheritance should be obvious: by resolving the dispute in favor of the previ- ous ruler, it left the newly enthroned king rich in pri- vileges, but property-poor. Therefore, the law forced an ascending ruler to exercise his property rights by amas- sing new possessions that would be incontestably his own.
For this reason split inheritance emerges as a principal cause of certain Chimu economic practices. The Chimu showed a constant concern with acquiring agricultural land, either through conquest or through large-scale irrigation projects designed to reclaim farm- land from Peru's coastal desert. (For an account of some Chimu irrigation projects see Michael Moseley, "Water-
22
ways of Ancient Peru," Field Museum of Natural His- tory Bulletin, March 1977.) If a newly crowned king owned no real property, his best opportunity lay in ob- taining agricultural land to support the workers who could provide him, and eventually his lineage of second- ary heirs, with tangible wealth.
To date, only a few burial platforms have been found outside Chan Chan. While these structures are not royal funeral mounds, they also offer insights into factors such as social and political organization. For example, Spanish chronicles suggest that Inca provincial administrators were subject to a modified form of split inheritance. The chief difference between the royal and provincial patterns seems to lie in the items actually owned by rulers and lower-level administrators.
Archaeological information relevant to this pro- blem comes from the site of Chiquitoy Viejo, a large corn-
apparent without more work than we undertook. None- theless, each of the two highest tiers, along with each subsection of the lower tiers, seems to contain one prin- cipal chamber surrounded by secondary cells. (In con- trast to Chan Chan, the principal chambers At Chiqui- toy Viejo are not T-shaped, but simply rectangular cells larger than the surrounding ones.) This pattern argues that while a Chan Chan burial platform was built for one individual, a king of Chimor, Chiquitoy Viejo's mound was designed for the burial of a series of import- ant individuals over a considerable span of time. As each of these persons died, he was to be interred in the prin- cipal cell of his section of the platform. Offerings and sacrifices were to be installed with him and in the ad- jacent secondary chambers.
While the platform was designed for extended use, archaeological evidence shows that it actually had a
The burial platform at Chiquitoy Viejo, seen from the north. The highest part of the pat form is what remains of the tapia cap atop tier 4. Most of the damage visible here was inflicted by looters.
pound in the Chicama Valley, about 25 kilometers north of Chan Chan. Our excavations in late 1971 showed that this site was a provincial administrative center estab- lished by the Incas after their conquest of Chimor. In keeping with Inca practices, the official based at Chiqui- toy Viejo was probably a local Chimu noble co-opted into the Inca government. This idea is supported by the pre- sence of a burial platform at the site; such structures were a Chimu, not Inca, tradition.
The burial platform at Chiquitoy Viejo is quite different from those of Chan Chan. The Chiquitoy Viejo platform was built in four tiers, and the larger tiers at the bottom were divided into separate subsections. The entire structure has been heavily damaged by looters, and the exact arrangement of all its cells would not be
relatively short life. The cells in most of the platform remain open to the sky. Only one section— the highest tier— was capped with a tapia block. (Tapia is the pre- historic Peruvian equivalent of concrete, a mixture of mud and gravel poured into wooden forms that were removed once the mud had dried. In essence, a tapia block is a giant adobe brick. ) Even more striking is the distribution of bones and artifacts. These materials are most densely concentrated in and around the capped section. Other sectors contain only scattered materials in looters' backdirt piles. As one moves further away from the capped section, bones and other remains become increasingly scarce. It seems that only the capped section was ever used, and that only one important person was actually buried in the platform.
23
Cast figure of llama. Head and neck are of gold, body is silver. Inca. Height 11.4 cm. This figure is in Field Museum 's permanent collection. Cat. no. 2402.
Left: Sheet-gold figurine holding beads, possibly of jade. Lambayeque style. Chimu. Height 4 cm. Right: Embossed figurine of warrior. Chimu. Height 4 cm.
Mask with stylized human face bordered by snakes. Possibly Inca. Height 22 cm.
Stirrup-spout ceramic bottle depicting man riding reed boat. Moche. Height 21.6 cm. This figure is in Field Mu- seum 's permanent col- lection. Cat. no. 121 7.
This conclusion fits neatly with data from another part of the compound, an administrative unit adjacent to the west side of the burial platform. This unit con- tains two u-shaped rooms that served as administrative "offices." Interestingly, the unit originally had only one such room. Eventually a wall without doorways was erected around this first room, shutting it off from the rest of the compound, and a second office was built as a replacement.
I interpret these facts as indications that Chiqui- toy Viejo was the seat of an important Inca provincial post held sequentially by two men. The first adminis- trator governed from the original u-shaped room. When he died, his office was sealed, and he was interred in his section of the burial platform. His successor built the second u-shaped office room. Presumably, this second administrator planned to be buried in a separate section of the platform. Before he died, however, Chiquitoy Viejo was abandoned, probably as a result of the social and political disruption caused by the Spanish conquest.
The history of Chiquitoy Viejo indeed seems to conform to a modified law of split inheritance. The com- pound as a whole was a state-owned administrative com- plex, not the personal property of the resident official. Therefore, in contrast to the death of a Chimu king, the demise of the Inca administrator at Chiquitoy Viejo did not require the construction of a new compound and burial platform. However, the actual office room occupied
by the local official was in some way personally identi- fied with him. It could not be used by his successor, who did have to build his own u-shaped room. Similarly, the prestigious goods accumulated by the first administrator were considered to be his personal property and were installed with him in his section of the burial platform. The new administrator had to obtain his own possessions during his years in office.
Recently yet another burial platform has been identified at the site of Farfan, a major Chimu provincial administrative center in the Jequetepeque Valley, about 100 kilometers north of Chan Chan. There are six large compounds at Farfan, but only one contains a burial platform. The implications of this pattern are still un- known. Did each succeeding chief administrator build his own compound, or did they all govern from one en- closure, with other compounds serving other purposes? Was the burial platform, like that of Chiquitoy Viejo, divided into sections for sequential use by the head officials at Farfan? Or was the entire platform a special privilege awarded by the king of Chimor to one man, perhaps the conqueror and first governor of the Jeque- tepeque Valley? Were Chimu provincial administrators in fact subject to a modified law of split inheritance? The answers to these questions must await the excava- tion of Farfan. Clearly, we have only begun to tap the information embodied in the elaborate burial platforms of Peru's north coast. □
Gamelan Master Class for Adults
An introduction to Indonesia's remarkable orchestral ensemble, including basic tech- niques of performance, musical structure, and the cultural background of gamelan music in social and ceremonial uses. To be offered on Thursday mornings, 10:00 a.m. to noon, for 10 weeks, March 2 through May 4. When the course is completed, the master class will give a public concert. The class is limited to 16 persons. (Registrants
should be physically able to remain seated on the floor— the position for playing many of the instruments.) Reservations will be confirmed upon receipt of check: $60.00 for members, $75.00 for nonmembers.
Send coupon below (or facsimile) to GAM- ELAN, Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605.
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26
February & March at Field Museum
(February 15 through March 15)
New Exhibits
Peru's Golden Treasures— opens February 16 (Members' preview February 15). A dazzling collection of 225 pre-Colum- bian gold artifacts on loan from the Museo Oro del Peru, Lima, Peru, comprises the largest collection of its kind ever to be shown in the United States. Augmenting the Museo Oro del Peru pieces, which survived the Spanish conquest of Peru in 1532, are more than 50 antiquities from Field Museum's own collections and from those of the Peabody Museum at Harvard. Hall 26. 2nd floor. Through May 21.
The Art of Basketmaking— February 25 and 26. Pacific Northwest Coast basketry methods will be demonstrated in the Basketry of the Northwest Coast Indians exhibit (Hall 27) from 10 a.m. to noon and 1 p.m. to 3 p.m.
Last Chance to See
Monkeys Inside and Out— closes February 22. Exhibit of illustrations of monkeys appearing in the recently published Living New World Monkeys, Vol. 1, by Philip Hershkovitz, emeritus curator of mammals. Hall 9.
New Programs
Spring Journey for Children: Exploring the Ancient
Andes— February 16 through May 31. Free self-guided Journey leads children and families through museum exhibits to learn about the lifestyles of ancient Andean cultures. Journey pamphlets are available at the information booth, main floor.
Exotic Flyers: Portraits of Neotropical Birds— closes February 22. Exhibit of exquisite bird illustrations appearing in the recently published Manual of Neotropical Birds. Vol. 1, by Emmet R. Blake, emeritus curator of birds. Hall 9.
Continuing Exhibits
Discovering the Moche— Fridays and Sundays, February 17 through May 21, at 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. Short documentary film interprets the symbolism on pottery made by Peruvians 1,000 years before the Incas. Shown in conjunction with the Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit. Simpson Theatre, ground floor west.
Basketry of the Northwest Coast Indians. This exhibit features more than 100 basketry items made mostly around 1900 by Indians of the Northwest Coast (southwestern Alaska to northern California). The three major basketry techniques- plaiting, twining, and coiling— are represented, along with raw materials and tools. Hall 27, 2nd floor.
Potato Planters— Fridays and Sundays, February 17 through May 21, at 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. Short documentary film surveys the modern Peruvian Aymara Indians who still live like their pre-Columbian ancestors. Shown in conjunction with the Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit. Simpson Theatre, ground floor west.
Field Museum Gamelan. Field Museum's 130-year-old Javanese gamelan, an ensemble of 24 fine bronze and wood musical instruments, has been completely restored for exhibi- tion. It is the oldest and perhaps finest gamelan outside Indo- nesia. An audio tape of gamelan music supplements this per- manent exhibit. Hall K, ground floor.
Peruvian Music Performance— February 18, at noon and 3 p.m. La Pena Peru, a group of local Peruvian musicians, performs coastal criollo music— a combination of Indian, Spanish, and African influences. The performance is in con- junction with the Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit. Stanley Field Hall, main floor.
Lords of the Labyrinth— every Saturday from February 18 through May 21, at 11 a.m. Newly released BBC-TV pro- duction features new developments in recent archaeological fieldwork by Field Museum anthropologists on the north coast of Peru. Shown in conjunction with the Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit. Simpson Theatre, ground floor west.
Pawnee Earth Lodge. This permanent exhibit, in Hall 5, is a traditional Pawnee earth lodge— the home and ceremonial center of Pawnee Indians as it existed in the mid- 1800s. Daily programs provide opportunities to learn about Pawnee culture. New public program hours: Monday through Friday, 1:15 p.m.: weekends, 11 a.m. and 1:15 p.m. Tickets may be picked up 15 minutes prior to the program at the north information booth. Programs limited to 30 people.
The Place for Wonder. This gallery provides a place to handle, sort, and compare artifacts and specimens. Weekdays, 1 p.m. to 3 p.m.; weekends, 10 a.m. to noon and 1 p.m. to 3 p.m.
Land of the Rio Grande— February 26, 2:30 p.m. The Illinois Audubon Society presents a free film lecture about one of the largest and most scenic rivers in the United States. Simpson Theatre, ground floor west.
Male and Female: Anthropology Game. The exhibit where visitors become anthropologists. Discover that economic and social roles of the sexes are not universally the same. Ground floor, near elevator.
Calendar continued on back cover
27
February & March at Field Museum
(CALENDAR continued from inside back cover)
Continuing Programs
On Your Own at Field Museum. Self-guided tour book- lets, adult- and family-oriented, available for for 25<f each at entrance to the Museum Shop, main floor north.
Weekend Discovery Programs. Guided tours, demon- strations, and participatory activities. Every Saturday and Sunday, 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.
The Ancient Art of Weaving. Weaving and spinning demonstrations every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, 10 a.m. to noon. South Lounge, 2nd floor.
Gamelan Adult Master Class— Thursdays, March 2 through May 4, from 10 a.m. to noon. Beginning basic tech- niques of performance, an understanding of musical structure, and the cultural background of gamelan music in social and ceremonial uses will be covered. A public concert will be given by the master class upon completion of the course. Members' fee, $60.00; nonmembers', $75.00. (Additional information and application form appears on page 26.)
Peru's Golden Treasures Lecture Series— Fridays, March 3, 10, and 17, at 8 p.m. Renowned experts in the field of South American ethnology and archaeology lecture on various aspects of ancient Peruvian culture and history. Series tickets: Members $7.00; nonmembers $10.00. Single tickets: Members $2.50, nonmembers $3.50 each.
A special dinner at 6 p.m. is available for Members before each lecture, at $7.00 per person. (Additional information and application form appears on pages 16-17.)
Ayer Illustrated Lecture Series— Saturdays, March 4 through April 29, at 2:30 p.m. Enjoy an adventurous but re- laxed afternoon touring the world while comfortably seated in the museum's Simpson Theatre, ground floor west. Doors open at 1:45 p.m. A limited number of reserved seats are available for Members on days of the lectures until 2:25 p.m.
Audio Information System. The museum's newly in- stalled audio system, Uniguide, enables visitors of all ages to visit selected exhibits in any sequence. Audio receivers and maps available for $1.25 per person, $3.75 for a family of up to five at the entrance to the Museum Shop, main floor north.
March 4
Treasures o//ra/y by Kenneth Richter
March 11
India
by Jens Bjerre
February and March Hours
The Museum Opens daily at 9 a.m. and closes 5 p.m. every day except Friday. On Fridays, the museum is open to 9 p.m.
The Museum Library is open weekdays 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Obtain a pass at reception desk, main floor.
Museum telephone: (312) 922-9410.
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ield Museum of Natural History Bulletin
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Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
March 1978 Vol. 49, No. 3
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production: Oscar Anderson Calendar: Nika Semkoff Levi-Setti
Staff photographer: Ron Testa
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
President and Director: E. Leland Webber
Board of Trustees
William G . Swartchild, Jr. ,
chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Harry O.Bercher Bowen Blair Stanton R. Cook O.C.Davis
William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Marshall Field Nicholas Galitzine Paul W. Goodrich Hugo J. Melvoin William H. Mitchell Charles F. Murphy, Jr. James J. O'Connor James H. Ransom Mrs. Joseph E. Rich John S. Runnells William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H.Strotz John W. Sullivan Edward R. Telling Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Julian B. Wilkins Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
William McCormick Blair Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg Samuel Insull, Jr. William V. Kahler Remick McDowell J. Roscoe Miller James L. Palmer John T. Pirie, Jr. Donald Richards John M. Simpson J. Howard Wood
CONTENTS
3 Field Briefs
4 Adventures in Patagonia
Paleontologist Elmer S. Riggs and Field Museum col- leagues encounter more than fossils during 1920s ex- pedition By Larry G. Marshall
12 Volunteers Honored
14 The Devil's Doorway: Then and Now
16 Life in the Pre-Columbian Town of Galindo, Peru
By Garth Bawden
24 The Conservation of a Woven Hat Cover
by Christine Danziger, conservator, and Jim Hanson, clerical staff, Department of Anthropology
25 Shadow Puppet Performances
26 Our Environment
27 March and April at Field Museum Calendar of coming events
COVER
Portion of lower wing, upper surface, of Telea polyphemus, large saturniid moth common to North America. Enlarged about 25 times. Photo by James Swartchild, Field Museum volunteer.
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 11. 60605. Subscriptions: $6 a year; $3 a year for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. II. 60605. ISSN: 00154)703.
Field Museum volunteers Hermann C. Bowersox and William E. McCarthy assisted in the editorial preparation of this issue.
Nu art child Elected Board Chairman
William G. Swartchild, Jr., a Field Museum trustee since 1966 and a vice chairman of the Board of Trustees since 1974, was elected chairman of the board at its meeting January 16. He succeeds Blaine J. Yarrington, chairman since 1974.
A native Chicagoan, Swartchild is retired from active business. He is a graduate of Dartmouth College, Han- over, N.H., and a member of Phi Beta Kappa. He is married to the former Beatrice Wolbach; they have one son, William III, of Riverside, Conn.
Swartchild's eleven years' service on the Board of Trustees has included chairmanship of the Program Planning and Evaluation Committee as well as membership on several other com- mittees. He is also active in the Ameri- can Association of Museums; as a mem- ber of the Trustee Subcommittee of that association he helped prepare a recently completed comprehensive code of ethics for museum personnel and volunteers.
Swartchild is currently chairman of the board of Children's Memorial Hos- pital, chairman of the board of North- western University's McGaw Medical Center, a trustee and chairman of the
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
James Swartchild
Academic Affairs Committee of Michael Reese Hospital, and a board member and chairman of the Finance Committee of Blue Cross-Blue Shield.
Mrs. Swartchild is a member of the Women's Board of Field Museum and a volunteer. James Swartchild, William's brother, is also a field Museum volun- teers and well known for his photo- graphic work, (the cover photo of this issue of the Bulletin is by James Swart- child.)
Blaine J. Yarrington, William Swartchild's predecessor as chairman, has been on the board since 1970; he will continue as a trustee and serve on the Public Affairs and Investment Com- mittees.
At the January 16 board meeting the following trustees were elected to new offices: James H. Ransom, vice chairman (internal affairs) and John W. Sullivan, vice chairman (facilities plan- ning). Those continuing in office were Bowen Blair, vice chairman (resource planning and development); James J. O'Connor, vice chairman (public af- fairs); John S. Runnells, vice chairman (program planning and evaluation); Mrs. Theodore Tieken, secretary; Edward Byron Smith, treasurer; and Leland Webber, president and director.
John G. Searle
Field Museum lost a long-time friend and benefactor with the death of John G. Searle on January 21. Mr. Searle, a trustee since 1951, died at his winter home in Hobe Sound, Florida, at the age of 76. He was elected to the Board of Trustees in 1951 and made a life trustee in 1971.
Searle was retired chairman of G. D. Searle & Co., of Skokie, 111., a pharma- ceutical firm founded by his grand- father. Earlier, he had been president of the firm. He is survived by his wife, Frances; two sons, William and Daniel; and a daughter, Mrs. Suzanne S. Dixon. His son William is a Field Museum trustee.
Mr. Searle was one of the Museum's major donors, though he always wished that his contributions be anonymous.
Throughout his active years as a trustee he demonstrated strong interest in and support of the institution's research program. In appreciation of this interest
John G. Searle
and of his generous contributions, the Field Museum herbarium— the Mu- seum's collection of preserved plants- was named the John G. Searle Herbari- um in 1972. In constant use by scien- tists of many countries who either visit or to whom loans of specimens are sent, this herbarium is one of the world's outstanding botanical research collec- tions. Currently under renovation as part of the Museum's building program, the John G. Searle Herbarium will re- main as a permanent memorial to one of Field Museum's major builders.
Peru's Golden Treasures Group Viewings
Do you know of a group of 30 to 50 persons whom you, as a Field Museum member, would like to "host" for a viewing of the current Peru's Golden Treasures exhibit (through May 21)? Viewings may be supplemented with a specially arranged lecture for your group as well as a meal. For group rates and additional information call 922-0733 .
ADVENTURES IN PATAGONIA
Field Museum paleontologists encounter more than fossils during their first expedi- tion to South America, 1922-24.
By Larry G. Marshall
"It is said that there was open rebellion in this territory a year ago and some 400 men were executed. . . . Please do not communicate this to our families." So wrote Elmer S. Riggs, Field Museum paleontologist, on January 3, 1923, shortly after setting up base camp at Rio Gallegos, in southern Argentina. A cause for anxiety? Probably so for the letter's recipient, D. C. Davies, then Field Museum's director. It had not been many years since another curator, anthropologist William Jones, had been murdered while doing field work in the Philippines.*
Now, Elmer Riggs and two Department of Geology preparators, John B. Abbott and George F. Sternberg, were beginning two years of field work in a new land. It
was to be an undertaking full of surprises and disappoint- ments, as well as unexpected pleasures.
Their objective was to make extensive collections of fossil mammals from Argentina and Bolivia. And where to begin such an endeavor? Naturally, in a locale known for the presence of fossils of a particular geological age: in a place like Patagonia— the southernmost 900 miles of Argentina east of the Andes and north of the Straits of Magellan.
*See "Why Was William Jones Killed?" by Barbara Stoner, September 1971 Bulletin.
77ie greaf barranca, or cliff, in central Patagonia — the most important fossil locality in South America.
Larry G. Marshall
This part of the world, long viewed as a no-man's- land, first came under serious scientific scrutiny in 1833, when the H.M.S. Beagle sailed along the Argentine coast to do geodetic surveys. Aboard the Beagle was a young English naturalist, Charles Darwin, whose res- ponsibilities included the collecting of natural history specimens. By the time the Beagle departed Argentine waters Darwin had accumulated an impressive array of fossil specimens that were entirely new to science. Sub- sequently, the specimens were classified and named by the eminent British anatomist, Sir Richard Owen.
Largely as a result of Darwin's discoveries, it was recognized that the Patagonian fauna was distinctly dif-
ferent from the fauna of the rest of the world, a fact which suggested that the region had been geologically isolated for a long period of time. Recent geological evidence sup- ports the view that South America was, indeed, an "island continent" during most of the last 65 million years of earth's history.
However, not until the pioneering work of the Argentinian brothers Carlos and Florentino Ameghino, which took place more than 50 years after Darwin's visit,
Larry G. Marshall, who has also collected fossils in Patagonia, is a visiting curator in the Department of Geology.
Patagonian itinerary of the Marshall Field Paleontological Ex- pedition to Patagonia (1922-24).
did the world of science begin to appreciate the wealth of fossil mammals occurring in Patagonia. Carlos Ameghino, the younger brother, made 16 expeditions into Patagonia, the first occurring in 1887. Florentino, in turn, wrote voluminously on the collections made by his brother.
Beginning in 1896, paleontologists from other countries began collecting in the region. John Bell Hatch- er, of Princeton University, made three expeditions be- tween 1896 and 1899. Andre Tournouer, of France, made five trips to southern Argentina between 1899 and 1904,
collecting for the Paris Museum of Natural History. In 1904, Handle T. Martin of Topeka, Kansas, collected along the Rio Gallegos. Many of his specimens are now in the University of Kansas Natural History Museum, at Lawrence.
The next major expedition to this region was Field Museum's "Marshall Field Paleontological Expedition to Patagonia (1922-24)," led by Riggs. When authorization for the Field Museum expedition came through in July, 1922, Riggs, Abbott, and Sternberg were on another fos- sil-hunting venture in Alberta, Canada. They lost no time in packing their specimens and hustled back to Chicago. On November 15 the expeditioners embarked at Hobo- ken, New Jersey, for a 17-day voyage to Buenos Aires.
Riggs had no sooner arrived in Argentina than he learned of a new law that could seriously restrict the col- lecting of fossil and archaeological specimens by foreign institutions. The law stipulated that field work could be prohibited in certain areas, that all collected material had to be inspected by Argentine officials before it could be shipped out of the country, that any specimens new to science could be confiscated, and that half of any series of desirable specimens could be withheld.
If rigidly enforced, such a set of regulations could greatly limit or vitiate Riggs' collecting efforts. He se- cured formal permission to proceed, but only after 23 days of wading through government red tape in Buenos Aires and satisfying Argentine officials that Field Muse- um's endeavor was an honorable one.
Following the route of Hatcher, Riggs established his first camp in January, 1923, at the estancia, or sheep ranch, of Don Charles Felton, on the north bank of the Rio Gallegos, some 40 miles from the city of Rio Gallegos. His first collecting was done along the north bank of the river in what is known as the Santa Cruz Formation, created during the early Miocene epoch, some 20 million years ago. Most fossils came from the lower 25 feet of the formation, which was exposed near the river's waterline.
Two of the fossils discovered by Riggs in this for- mation—the herbivorous mammals Astrapotherium and Homalodotherium—are of particular interest because relatively complete skeletons of these animals were col- lected. (The reconstructions of these two fossils are on view in Hall 38. ) Astrapotherium stood nearly five feet in height and was about 9% feet long. It was large- headed and long-bodied, and its mouth was armed with four strong tusks somewhat like those of a wild boar. The fore- foot had five toes which were probably enclosed in a fleshy pad like that of an elephant. The hind legs were more slender than the forelegs and the entire hindquar- ters were relatively light. Remains of this animal were found in lagoon and stream channel deposits. This fact, together with the features of padded feet and a kind of dentition suitable for chewing soft, lush vegetation, sug- gest that Astrapotherium was the South American "hip- popotamus" of its time.
Homalodotherium was a sturdy, heavy-bodied, strong-limbed creature with the proportions of a bear and about as tall as an ox. Its head was similar in proportion to that of certain extinct members of the rhinoceros fam- ily. Its grinding teeth were of the sort associated with a vegetation diet, and it had neither tusks nor horns for defense. The hind legs were relatively short and stout, longer in the thigh and shorter in the lower leg. The bear- like hind feet could be firmly planted on the ground and were well adapted for supporting the body in an activity such as digging for roots or for rearing upright so that the upper limbs could pull down branches, presumably to feed on foliage or fruit.
Shortly After Riggs' Arrival in Rio Gallegos, a cer- tain J. G. Wolfe introduced himself and offered his ser-
vices to the expedition. Wolfe claimed to have been a museum curator in Rio Gallegos and to have held a com- mission in the Argentine army. But what aroused Riggs' interest, more than his credentials, was Wolfe's descrip- tion of a "Tertiary human skull" and an "enchanted city." Riggs decided to investigate these curiosities, though with reservations.
They set out for El Paso de Santa Cruz, the settle- ment where the skull had apparently been found. The proprietor of a local hostelry recalled that the skull had first attracted notice about 1916 and had been discovered in a roadbed near town. The first person to suspect that it might be of scientific value was said to have been an English nurse, a Mrs. Vendrino, who had worked in the area for some years. She obtained custody of the skull and it was in her possession when Wolfe had examined it earlier.
Homalodotheri- um reconstruc- tion on view in Hall 38. Like Astrapotherium, below, it lived in Patagonia dur- ing Miocene times. Both fos- sils were found by Riggs and his associates in 1923.
A strapotherium reconstruction on view in Hall 38. Occurring some 20 million years ago in what is now Patagonia, it was the South Ameri- can "hippopota- mus''' of its time.
I Elmer Riggs exam- ines fossil skull and jaw collected in Patagonia.
Field Museum 's Elmer S. Riggs, John B. Abbott, and George F. Sternberg (standing: second, third, and fifth from left) enjoy some South American hospitality while visiting an Argentine meteorological station at Colonia Sarmiento. Their hosts are seated.
JohnB. Abbott ex- cavating dinosaur femur in January, 1924. This huge thigh bone is on permanent view in Stanley Field Hall, where it is designated the "touch bone."
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In El Paso de Santa Cruz, Riggs— who was becom- ing increasingly suspicious of the alleged skull— was told that Mrs. Vendrino had recently "gone mad" and had been taken to Buenos Aires for treatment. She had taken her treasured, 22-pound skull along as a trophy. Eventu- ally, Riggs was able to track down the "skull," and his suspicions were confirmed: it was just a very curious stone, with a remarkable humanoid shape.
From El Paso, the Riggs party now proceeded 175 miles northwestward to Lago Cardiel, in search of Wolfe's "enchanted city." Once there, Riggs experienced another disappointment as the "city" proved to be nothing more than an intrusive bed of lava, or dike, as it is known in geological parlance. The "city" filled a fissure in the sur- rounding clays and had subsequently been laid bare by erosion. Local residents saw nothing unusual in it, for a number of similar structures were to be found in the area.
Perhaps naive, perhaps an eternal optimist, or pos- sibly just the victim of a kind of salesmanship, Riggs was now intrigued by Wolfe's account of an "ancient ceme- tery" of fossil mammals. They proceeded over a circui- tous route to the camp of an amateur fossil collector, a man who had worked with paleontologist Carlos Ame- ghino some 25 years earlier. On the second night out, the party realized that they had travelled almost in a circle and were now six miles from their starting point. The search for the ancient fossil "cemetery" was forthwith abandoned and Riggs drew these belated conclusions about Wolfe:
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"He betrays no evidence of scientific training, [and] is particularly lacking in ability to recognize and interpret natural objects and to derive data from them. His method . . . has been to get theories from reading and then to cast about for some object to fit into the theory. . . . Dr. Wolfe has impressed us as an enthusiast with a wanderlust and no purpose beyond gratifying it. He studied law . . . but found that profession too tame and colorless to suit his fancy. He . . . apparently wrote extravagant stories in order to sell them. He is already, so he says, under fire of criticism of a leading scientist in Buenos Aires." When the party returned to Rio Gallegos, Wolfe was dismissed.
Later in the year, the expedition set up camp near the Estancia La Angostura, on the south bank of the Rio Chico del Chubut. Here, new surprises awaited them. They pitched camp not far from some bluffs of gray shale, and on the day of their arrival Abbott was already climb- ing about the bluffs and inspecting them. He hurried back to report the presence of dinosaur bones.
The next day, Abbott and Riggs examined the bluffs more thoroughly. Bones of large dinosaurs were indeed there— they had been dug out of the shale and
Although bleak and forbidding in aspect, the Santa Cruz Form- ation along Patagonia 's A tlantic coast is good fossil country.
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Family of Welsh immigrants posed in their Sunday best before their Pat agonian home.
"Bones of large dinosaurs . . . had been dug out of the shale and placed in orderly piles, . . . with no mark of ownership and exposed to the elements. "
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placed in orderly piles nearby! There the bones sat, with no mark of ownership and exposed to the elements. Sun, rain, and wind had weathered them so that they were now falling into decay. Three or four thousand pounds in all, this accumulation represented no small effort on the part of an earlier collector. Local residents remembered that some work had been done there about 20 years earlier, but no one knew who the fossil-hunter had been, where he had come from, or what fate had befallen him.
A few days later Riggs and Abbott discovered their predecessor's deserted camp. A ring of stones marked the outlines of a tolda, or bush shelter, such as those made in earlier times by Indians and which were still used by local shepherds as temporary camps. Bits of reed matting lay among the stones. A drift pick, shovel, and two hammers bore testimony to an earlier expedition— all carried the trade mark of a Sheffield, England, toolmaker; they also found a badly rusted ring bolt and the iron handles of a chest. These were the only clues to the identity of the man who had worked the bluffs two decades earlier, only to leave the fruits of his labor abandoned. Had he fallen ill and died? Had he abandoned his work in a fit of despair or when funds ran out? Had he been set upon by thieves?
The place had an eerie air about it, and besides, the expedition's main objective was mammals, not dino- saurs. In any case, the party soon packed up their gear and headed southwest about 20 miles to a particular bar- ranca, or cliff, which has come to be recognized as the most important single fossil locality in all of South Amer- ica. This barranca, south of Lago Colhue-Huapi, extends westward from the source of the Rio Chico del Chubut to a point south of Lago Musters. The remarkable feature of this barranca is that faunas of four distinct, successive ages of land mammals occur there, superimposed one upon the other.
Toward the end of January, 1924— after more than a year in the field— the expedition moved westward to explore the terrain surrounding the San Bernardino Mountains west of Lago Musters. All of the fossil beds encountered in this area were Cretaceous in age (135 million to 63 million years old) and although the party encountered no fossil mammals, they did find dinosaurs. Several well preserved femurs (upper bones of the hind leg) were collected at a point 10 to 12 miles northwest of Cerro San Bernardino. One of these femurs (the "touch bone"), weighing nearly half a ton, is now on permanent display in Stanley Field Hall.
In May, 1924, Riggs headed southwest in search of a fossil pine forest in the vicinity of Cerro Cuadrado. The first indication of a bosque petrificado, or fossil forest, had come three months earlier, when Riggs was given a fossil pine cone by a country storekeeper midway between Lago Colhue-Huapi and Lago Musters. The specimen had been discovered "60 leagues southward." Riggs was later shown two similar cones at Mazarredo, on the south shore of the Golfo de San Jorge. These were said to have
Dave Walsten
Author Larry G. Marshall with skulls collected by Riggs from the Santa Cruz Formation. Left is an herbivorous notoungul- ate; right is a carnivorous marsupial.
come from "20 leagues to the west." More cones were seen at Jaramillo, about 6 miles north of the Rio Deseado and some 40 miles east-southeast of the town of Pico Truncado. These came from "12 leagues to the south- ward."
Using a bit of elementary triangulation, Riggs cal- culated the general location of the legendary forest. With the owner of the Jaramillo specimen as guide, the party headed south. After six days of searching, they found the source of the cones, some 60 miles south of Pico Trun- cado. It was indeed a forest, with petrified stumps still standing and trunks and branches strewn about. Many were of the genera Araucaria or Proaraucaria, relatives of the Brazilian pine, a living species.
The forest, since designated a national monument by the Argentine government, is recognized as one of the world's two greatest petrified forests, the other being the Petrified Forest in Arizona's Painted Desert National Monument. Riggs was able to make a collection of 250 specimens of fossil cones, twigs, and branches.
In mid-May of 1924 the expedition moved north to escape the rigors of winter. Crossing the Rio Negro, Riggs, Abbott, and Sternberg left Patagonia, never to return; they had more than satisfied their objectives. After a break of several months, Riggs was involved in phase II of the expedition, an enterprise that continued until October, 1927. But that's another story— to be re- counted in a future Bulletin. □
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Volunteers Honored
Vicki Grigelaitis, of the Department of Education, is coordinator of the Volunteers Program.
An all-time record of 42,665 total hours were logged by Field Museum's 281 regular volunteers in 1977; an addition- al 23,854 hours were tallied by 350 Trea- sures of Tutankhamun volunteers dur- ing that exhibition's four-month run. The total hours of the two groups was 66,519— more than twice the volunteer hours for the preceding year.
Volunteers contribute to the opera- tion of each of the Museum's curatorial
departments, as well as to the depart- ments of Education and Exhibition, to Planning and Development, the Divi- sion of Publications, and other sectors of the Museum's operation; and their areas of expertise are truly impressive. Cataloging, accessioning of specimens, gardening, researching, teaching, photography, technical writing, illu- strating, and editing are only a few of the varied services provided on a volun-
tary basis by this dedicated group. The Museum's indebtedness to them is greater than any expression of grati- tude can adequately convey.
On February 1, a buffet reception was held at the Museum to pay tribute to these very special 281 men and wom- en. Leland Webber, Museum president, and William G. Swartchild, Jr., chair- man of the Board of Trustees, welcomed the group and presented awards to the volunteers.
Special recognition :
John O'Brien (907 hours), Educa- tion; assisting in preparation of Harris Extension materials and resources.
Patricia Talbot (828 hours), Geol- ogy; compiling Mazon Creek fauna guide.
David Weiss (810.50 hours), An- thropology; curatorial assistance, Asian collections.
Sol Gurewitz (806 hours), Anthro- pology; photographing artifacts, Ori- ental collections.
Alice Schneider (800 hours), An- thropology; Chinese rubbings mono- graph.
Sue Carter-De Vale (780 hours), Anthropology; research, gamelan pro- ject.
Anne Leonard (651.25 hours), An- thropology; research, tapacloth pro- ject.
James Swartchild (603.50 hours), Anthropology; photographing anthro- pological collections.
Sol Century (573.25 hours), Anthro- pology; curatorial assistance, Oriental collections.
More than 400 hours
James Burd, Anthropology; cata- loguing, accessioning, Asian collections.
Louva Calhoun, Anthropology; illustrating lithic tools for publication.
Peter Gayford, Anthropology; cataloguing, Chinese rubbings research.
Lorna Gonzales, Education; tea- cher, resource facilitator.
Fleur Hales, Photography Division; photographing specimens and Museum activities.
Claxton Howard, Library; cata- loguing.
Malcolm Jones, Education; teacher,
Beverly Baker, education volunteer, demonstrates artifacts to children in Pawnee earth lodge.
Vicki Grigelaitis
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Vicki Grigelaitis Virginia Beatty, volunteer in Botany, pre- pares liverwort specimens for storage.
resource facilitator.
LeMoyne Mueller, Anthropology; textile restoration. Zoology; curatorial assistance in Invertebrates.
Ernest Newton, Anthropology; photographing collections.
Carole Schumacher, Geology; cataloguing.
Helen Urban, Anthropology; gamelan restoration.
More than 300 hours
Shauna Clark, Anthropology; col- lection maintenance.
Anne DeVere, Education; teacher, resource facilitator.
Margaret Dreessen, Zoology; organization and labeling of mammal specimens.
Ira Jacknis, Anthropology; text- fiche research, Northwest Coast lantern slides, Dorsey Expedition.
Margaret Martling, Botany; cata- loguing.
William McCarthy, Museum Bul- letin; editorial assistance.
Anita Padnos, Education; teacher, resource facilitator.
Sylvia Schueppert, Anthropology; textile restoration.
Llois Stein, Anthropology; cata- loguing.
Michael Story, Public Relations; editing, writing.
1977 VOLUNTEERS
Christine Abiera Myrna Abrams Laura Adamski Bruce Ahlborn Sydney Allport John Appel Carrie Anderson Cleo Anderson Dolores Arbanas Jean Armour Judy Armstrong Steve Arnam Beverly Baker Margaret Baker Gwen Barnett Rae Barnett Robert Barth Sanda Bauer Dodie Baumgarten John Bayalis Ann Beverly Bazner Carol Beatty Virginia Beatty Marvin Benjamin Phoebe Bentley William Bentley Leslie Beverly Riva Blechman Mary Ann Bloom Sharon Boemmel John Botscharow Idessie Bowens Hermann Bowersox Carol Briscoe Jean Brown Rose Buchanan Teddy Buddington Mary Ann Bulanda Elizabeth Buntrock James Burd Michael Burns Louva Calhoun Anna Campoli Leticia Carlson Sue Carter-De Vale Jean Carton Jean Casey Sol Century Karen Chesna June Chomsky Mary Clapper Robert Clark Shauna Clark Mark Clausen Janet Connor Eugenia Cooke Collenane Cosey Diane Coultas Connie Crane Velta Cukers Theresa Dade Georgette D'Angelo Eleanor DeKoven Carol Deutsch Anne DeVere Miya Esperanza Diablo Mariann Diekman Delores Dobberstein Carolyn Donovan Mary Beth Do well Margaret Dreessen
Stanley Dvorak
Linda Dybas
Milada Dybas
Sharon Ebbert
Alice Eckley
Bonnie Eiber
Anne Ekman
Karen Elarde
Jeffrey Ellison
Nancy Epping
Lee Erdman
Kathryn Farmer- Mar gulis
Martha Farwell
Suzanne Faurot
Lee Fefferman
Jo Fitch
Jayne Fitzsimmons
Gerda Frank
Arden Frederick
Nancy Frederick
Melissa Frey
Gary Fritz
Peter Gayford
Rosa Gamarra-Thomson
John Gelder
Patricia Georgouses
Dr. Elizabeth Louise Girardi
Anita Goldberg
Shirley Goldman
Lorna Gonzales
Rochelle Goodsitt
Helen Gornstein
Evelyn Gottlieb
Carol Graczyk
Grace Greaves
Paul Gritis
Theresa Gross-Diaz
Patrick Gulley
Jessye Gunter
Sol Gurewitz
Fleur Hales
Michael Hall
Bernice Harris
Shirley Hattis
Gail Hathaway
Audrey Hiller
Rose Horner
Claxton Howard
Miranda Howard
Ruth Howard
David Humbard
Julie Hurvis
Adrienne Hurwitz
Lucinda Hutchison
Diane Hutchinson
Ellen Hyndman
James Jack
Ira Jacknis
Penny Jacobs
Patricia Jacobssen
Malcolm Jones
Julia Jordan
Dorothy Karall
Ruthe Karlin
Adria Katz
Shirley Kennedy
Lisa Kent
Marjorie King
John Kolar
Larry Kolczak Anne Koopman Eva Kopel Katherine Krueger Roberta Laffey Anita Landess Hildy Lane Carol Landow Dorothy Leghorn Anne Leonard Elizabeth Lilly Carol Link Margaret Litten Susan Lynch Edna MacQuilkin Russell Maheras Judy Main Catherine Majeske Gabby Margo Gretchen Martin Margaret Martling Martha Mather Geri Matsushita Joyce Matuszewich Melba Mayo William McCarthy Mark McCollam Chloe McKeever Cecily McNeil Withrow Meeker Thomas Menchaca Margot Merrick Marilyn Miller Martha Mills Grace Millman Sharon Moehling Carolyn Moore LeMoyne Mueller Anne Murphy Mary Naunton JoAnn Nelson John Ben Nelson Mary Nelson Nancy Nelson Louise Neuert Natalie Newberger Ernest Newton Herta Newton Allan Niederman Joyce Niederman Suzanne Niven Mary Eileen Noonan Bernice Nordenberg Janis O'Boye John O'Brien Diane O 'Neil Joan Opila Gary Ossewaarde China Oughton Anita Padnos Raymond Parker Susan Parker Sally Parsons Frank Paulo Christine Pavel Elizabeth Peacock Anna Pearman-
Daugerdas Hazel Pensock Mary Ann Peruchini Wilma Pesavento
Lorraine Peterson Kathleen Picken David Poster Elizabeth Rada Col. M. E. Rada Ruth Reinhold Sheila Reynolds Yvonne Robins William Roder Barbara Roob Sarah Rosenbloom Marie Rosenthal Anne Ross Dennis Roth Helen Ruch Lenore Sarasan MaijaSedzielarz Theresa Schaefer Margaret Schaffner Tim Schalk Joel Schenk Alice Schneider Sylvia Schueppert Julia Schultz Carole Schumacher Sandy Schweitzer Beverly Scott Louise Searle Laura Seidman Ann Shanower Louise Sherman Judy Sherry James Skorcz Eleanor Skydell Catherine Smallwood Janet Sobesky Irene Spensley Tim Stark Llois Stein Lorain Stephens Lucille Stern Dorothy Stevenson Joann Stevenson John Stine Michael Story Susan Streich Beatrice Swartchild James Swartchild Julia Szymczyk Patricia Talbot JaneThain Clare Tomaschoff Dana Treister Harold Tsunehara Edith Turkington Lynn Turner Helen Urban Karen Urnezis Judith Valentine Barbara Vear Don Virgil Harold Voris Kim Waldron Sandra Wantuch Harold Waterman Suzanne Webb David Weiss Fred Werner LaDonna Whitmer Reeva Wolfson Lynn Zeger
13
The Devil's Doorway, on the southeast bluff above Devil's Lake, Wisconsin. The photo at left was taken in 1872, that on the right a century later — 1972. The earlier photo was the work of H. H. Bennett (1843- 1908), a well known landscape photographer. His home
and studio in Wisconsin Dells (then called Kilbourn) is now a museum. The 1872 photo was made on a 4 x 5 glass plate negative. The 1972 photo, taken by a Field Museum volunteer, was made on 4 x 5 film. The Devil's Doorway consists of Baraboo quartzite, an extremely
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hard metamorphosed sandstone that weathers very slowly. Since Bennett took his photo, climbers have apparently titled the large boulder above the doorway; a metal pin (not visible here) for climbers' ropes has
also been hammered into the rock. The Baraboo field trips for Field Museum members have annually visited the Devil's Doorway site, some 160 miles northwest of Chicago.
15
Massive stone and adobe wall at Galindo. This wall is more than six feet thick. A central stone core was faced with thick skins of adobe brick. The adobe facing still stands to the left,
*^.**&sgSF
but has collapsed on the right, exposing the core. This wall ran across the base of a hillside separating a lower class hillside residen tial area from the remainder of the settlemen t below.
By Garth Bawden
THE NORTHERN COASTAL DESERT OF PERU is one of the most arid regions of the world. In contrast, the numerous small river valleys which cross this desert constitute rich irrigated oases where numerous crops are grown and where fairly dense population is possible. Just as this situation exists today, so it did in the time before the coming of the Spanish conquistadores to Peru. During that period a sequence of rich indigenous states flour- ished in the northern coastal valleys. Among them was the Moche state (200-800 A.D. ), the subject of this study. This state was centered in the Moche River Valley, where two of its major settlements were located. The largest of these contained the Huaca del Sol (illustrated in the March 1977 Bulletin). This huge settlement constituted the focal point of the Moche state for much of its exis- tence. However, around 600 A.D. the Huaca del Sol was
Photos courtesy of the author
abandoned and the capital removed much farther north up the coast. This dramatic reorganization apparently occurred as a response to both internal disruption and foreign threat; indeed, almost all of the Moche territories south of the Moche Valley were lost at this time. A some- what smaller, less elaborate but highly complex settle- ment remained as the center of Moche rule in the valley. This settlement, Galindo, formed the focus for a two- year archaeological investigation that I directed from 1972 to 1974.
Garth Bawden is on the curatorial staff of Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass.
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Galindo is a 6-square-kilometer city situated at the junction of the Andes foothills and the coastal plain of the Rio Moche, about 16 kilometers (10 miles) from the sea. The city spreads over the desert that flanks the narrow, intensively cultivated river valley. Such a loca- tion was common for the larger pre-Spanish settlements of Peru and allowed easy access to the fields without occupying irrigable ground. Agricultural productivity, essential for the existence of the state, was thus maxi- mized. Because of the extreme dryness of the desert climate, the preservation at Galindo is excellent, and we find that stone and mud-brick structures used for domestic housing, city government, religion, storage and industry are largely intact. Not only architecture re- mains; in the kitchens of domestic homes, mud-brick hearths still contain food refuse from the last meals cooked in them. Corncobs, shell, llama and fish bone, peanuts, and peppers attest to the varied diet of the in- habitants. Likewise, literally hundreds of thousands of pottery fragments thickly cover the floors of Galindo buildings. These are fragments not only of cooking and storage vessels but also of the fine painted pottery that served as a major vehicle for Moche artistic expression.
Pottery vessels, known as stirrup-spout jars be- cause of their distinctive shape, are the best known re- mains of Moche material culture. They appear in the display cases of all major museums and represent a high- water mark in indigenous American art. Like Greek vases, these Moche vessels are adorned with many representations of daily activities, revealing much about the life of the people that would otherwise be unknown.
The lifeways represented by these rich remains were varied and complex. Galindo, the equivalent of a modern provincial capital, contained a large number of public administrative and religious buildings as well as an extensive residential area and industrial sites. In fact, Galindo represents the Moche equivalent of the modern local center not only in the architecture of its structures but in the way in which these are arranged. Just as in modern cities the government center and main religious buildings have privileged locations, so do they at Balin- do. Cercaduras— large complexes of walled compounds containing impressive series of terraced rooms— repre- sent the administrative foci of the city. These structures stand in the heart of the city on high ridges where they are in clear view of the residential areas. Through their physical prominence they clearly manifest the authority which radiated from them to the whole Moche Valley.
The religious center of Galindo is similarly set apart from the rest of the settlement in a prominent, yet secluded, location. On a naturally formed terrace stand three platform mounds. These structures, which consist of square platforms supporting superstructures ap- proached by ramps, are small relatives of the huge Huaca del Sol at Moche. They represent the focus of religious activities around which the daily activities of Moche life
centered— much as our traditional Western civilization centered around its great cathedrals and churches.
Another important architectural structure pre- sent at Galindo also has its parallels in the city planning of other civilizations. A huge complex including a plat- form and four walled compounds stands near the religi- ous platforms. This elaborate structure was probably the palace of Galindo's chief ruler. Although today the all- pervading desert has imbued the palace with its own somber texture and color, when in use it embodied the authority and magnificence of a centralized state. The pyramid, with its centuries of importance as the archi- tectural center of Moche religion and government, is incorporated into a palace complex, lending the weight of traditional symbolism to the residence and person of the ruler.
Moreover, the plastered walls of the palace com- pounds were originally bright with color. Frescoed fig- ures, representing heroes and divinities from Moche
Stirrup-spout jar from upper class home at Galindo. Such ves- sels often bore painted depictions of religious ceremonies and mythological creatures.
■
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. 1
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Pottery figurines recovered from residences. Female figure on right holds a rattle. Two figures on left wear typical Moche headdresses, while one also plays musical instrument. Small
figurine second from right represents a monkey. Such figurines were common in Galindo homes of all classes and were manu- factured in a pottery workshop discovered at the settlement.
mythology, were painted around the inside walls of the main entrance compound — awing the visitor with their dramatically contrasting blue, red, and yellow forms.
From this entry compound ramps led to elevated walkways on the compound walls. Thus, access was gained in a roundabout fashion to the area of the pyramid itself — the most exclusive portion of the whole com- plex. It was this area which probably contained the re- sidence of the ruler and which marks the place of supreme authority at Galindo.
Within all of the major architectural structures concerned with state authority— be they religious or secular— may be seen the exact locations where such authority was exercised. Small daises, often approached by ramps or steps, stand in the most elaborately formal parts of the structures. The activities which centered on these daises are depicted on the stirrup-spout vessels : rulers seated in victorious splendor, receiving homage from their defeated foes; religious ceremonies being per- formed before personages seated on a dais; resplendently
garbed individuals apparently dispensing justice and exercising administrative authority. Thus we can re- create from the ancient painted vessels and crumbling architecture the life-and-death events which once cen- tered around them and imagine the complex govern- mental apparatus of a refined civilization carrying out the procedures which ensured the orderly existence of Moche society.
Moche society at Galindo was highly structured. A population numbering in the tens of thousands was divided into strictly ordered classes, each with its own functions and responsibilities. This social division was carried to the extent of separating the residential areas of the different groups. Thus the largest, most elaborate residential structures are at a distance from those of the
Aerial view of Galindo, showing a small segment of the upper class residential architecture which spreads across the plain. *•
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19
majority of the populace. Extensive well built residences with large kitchens, benched living rooms, and numerous storerooms spread over the otherwise empty ground near the cercaduras. These structures were the residences of a ruling elite — those individuals who worked in the nearby centers and controlled the administrative machinery.
A much larger area of residential structures, not as elaborate as these, extends across the plain adjacent to the cultivated valley bottom. Here lived the upper classes of Galindo. In homes sharing the same plan and internal functional components, these people lived in well con- structed dwellings which still vividly portray the nature of domestic life at Galindo more than a thousand years ago.
The typical dwellinghouse of the middle class Galindo denizen